Industrial Age to Knowledge Age

This transition trot the industrial to the knowledge age has come with its inherent challenges. This article will examine how organizations are being affected by rapid change and complex challenges associated with these transitions. The article will further examine the industrial age embedded in operation and practices of the organization. How the Elementary school Is detected by rapid change and complex challenges associated with the move from Industrial Age to Knowledge Age In the elementary school, where I teach, children are in their budding stages of education This makes the most liable to rapid changes associated with the knowledge age. The knowledge era Is characterized by technological advancements. The use technology in teaching has necessitated frequent adjustment of the qualifications of teachers In elementary school. There are inadequate teaching staffs that are competent in the latest technology that can enhance learning.The competitive landscape coupled with the rapid o f increase in the number of students Interested In technical and science oriented subjects is a big challenge. According to (Hall & Taylor, 1999), â€Å"The knowledge era Is characterized by a new competitive landscape driven by globalization, technology, deregulation, and demagnification (Lull-Been & Russ, 2008, p. 189) On the social front, globalization has led too rapid growth in the number of children drawn from different cultural backgrounds. Even though, this has helped debunk the fallacies that breed racial prejudice; the challenges that affect theInteraction between children In our multiracial elementary school remain insurmountable. Most children remain normalized by the very education system that is meant to create social justice and equality because all students are assessed based on Standard Written English (SEE). There Is a challenge in developing student centered pedagogy and assessment tools that factor in the diversity of our students. There Is d need to overcome th e royalty in lexicography In the classroom and embrace a versatile approach to teaching.There are inadequate staffs who can act as Interpreters tort children who do not understand English as a mode to immunization. Teachers need to remain sensitive to the needs of children from different backgrounds and adopt meaner of education that is responsive to the needs of students (Whites, 2007). B) Industrial age assumptions embedded In operation and current practices of the elementary school There are several industrial age assumptions embedded In the operations and current practices to my school.This ranges from the approach to teaching and learning to the organizational and leadership structures of my school, At my workplace, the education system assumes that all children In the school are Inadequate. The educational system falls to recognize the unique talents and aspirations to every child English language is a compulsory subject. Children who are unable to develop adequate skills are branded failures, and the school puts them through intensive training sessions to fix these inadequacies.The belief that all children are inadequate, and it is the duty of the school to fix them has left some students in limbo despite enormous talents. Some students who are gifted in sports are forced to go through formal training in courses that are not contributory to their careers in the future (Sense, Cameron-McCabe, Lucas, Smith, & Dutton, 2012). The school follows a curriculum that was developed more than fifty years ago. No meaningful adjustments have been made to the curriculum despite data from the school showing that five percent of the student population has special needs.These special needs include physically challenged and some students who have schooling problems. These students are clustered in cohorts with their colleagues based on age. These students are exposed to similar assessments Just like their colleagues and yet they need special considerations based on their needs. This confirms the industrial age assumption, â€Å"Everyone learns, or should learn, in the same way (Sense et al. , 2012). † These children are frustrated because they always come last in academic assessment. As the lead teacher in grade 7, one of my students was always last in every assessment, in social studies.However, the student was excellent in application-based subjects such as Mathematics. Further investigations into this case showed that he had a disturbed childhood and hence could not concentrate in class for a long time. This exposed the unjustifiable classification of children as â€Å"dumb†, clever† when in deed students have unique capabilities, and the circumstances of assessment must be tailored along the unique needs and capacities of students. For this reason, the industrial age assumption â€Å"There are smart kids and dumb kids (Sense et al. 2012)† remains one of our greatest undoing in terms of embracing the knowledge age and remaining responsive to the social, health and economic needs of our students. In a recent parent's meeting, Physical Education lessons have also been hijacked by enthusiastic teachers who want to â€Å"help weak students† to learn and catch up with others. In complete disregard of the need for a child to learn and grow wholesomely, the school has adopted a policy that further curtails holistic growth of students through co-curricular activities.The assumptions â€Å"Learning takes place in the head, not in the body as a whole (Sense et al. , 2012)† and â€Å"Learning takes place in the classroom, not in the world (Sense et al. , 2012)† seem to have inspired this moves. These assumptions are to blame for the â€Å"robots† that schools are churning out annually. In an attempt to show mastery of content, students simply cram glasswork and never appreciate the role of learning and teaching in their future lives.Failure to appreciate studentship as a chance t o integrate students into society and offer them holistic training has been a great disservice to the future generation (Sense et al. , 2012). PART 2: IMPLEMENTATION OF A WORKPLACE POLICY IN THE KNOWLEDGE ERA a) How Elementary School is identifying and responding to these challenges The school is committed to transforming operations and general practice in order to suit learners. For this reason, there are several internal policies. This can be summarized based on The Emergence Dynamic Model.Figure 1 0 The Emergence Dynamic. (Adapted trot Complexity Leadership Theory: Shifting Leadership From the Industrial Age to the Knowledge Age by (Russ, Lull-Been, ; McKinley, 2007, p. 309) The Emergence Dynamic Model constitutes reformulation and self-organization approaches. Reformulation consists of reorganization of preexisting elements to produce qualitatively different outcomes from the original results. My school has made such efforts. They include: I. The school has created a network of interaction among teachers to help tackle these challenges.One of the Deputy Principals meets teachers every fortnight to seek solutions to issues facing the school. I'. Teachers share strategies with other and ampere knowledge on how to improve learning and remain responsive to the challenges that students face. Iii. The school policy requires that teachers in charge of different grades meet often to discuss issues that affect students and handle arising matters. Parent's are encouraged to meet teachers and discuss issues affecting their children. Every semester, there is a parent's meeting. This helps minimize conflicts. V. The School Board meets every month and makes discusses all decisions that they make with teachers and parent's. V. The principal meets the School Management Team to discuss all issues that pertain to the school. This minimizes conflicts. V'. The school has well-structured school rules, behavior goals, and classroom expectations. This enhances learner-centered a nd objective teaching and learning which is in line with the knowledge era. This outlines the punishment that should be mute out for anyone who contravenes the school rules. Ii. The school has a professional conduct policy to enhance professionalism. Viii. The internal policy within the school requires that members of staff who teach every grade must meet often. Parent's are invited to meet teachers to help develop student- centered pedagogy. ‘x. Professional Development Programs: In order to remain responsive to globalization and the challenges that come with the knowledge edge, all teachers are required to upgrade their professional acumen especially in the Information and Technology Sector. ) Impact on the organization and the work of practitioners in the school The changes that the school has implemented have resulted in adaptability, creativity, learning, and thus enhancing the responsiveness of the school to the social, cultural and even economic needs of the children in the elementary school. The school enrolment has rapidly increased since most parent's live that the mode of teaching adopted by the school allows their children to be all round. The increase in the number of admissions had added pressure to the school facilities necessitating investment in new infrastructure.Students have improved in their academic performance. This is due to improved teacher-parent interactions. I have noted that students in grade 7, where I'm the leading teacher, have significantly improved in their grades and are also more responsible with the tasks that we assign them in school. This is attributed to transparency and the learner-centered pedagogy. Most teachers have been motivated to pursue further studies and take technology courses to keep abreast with the knowledge era. All members of staff who had diplomas have now enrolled for degree courses as well as training in technology.This has enhanced human resource development in the country. However, some members of staff were unable to cope with the rapidly changing environment and demands to the knowledge era. A significant number to staffs who were used the â€Å"machine world of teachers in control† have quit the profession. This is because the knowledge era has no room for the industrial age searchers. In conclusion, there are numerous challenges that have emerged against the backdrop of transition from an industrial age to a knowledge age.

Academic performance and technology Essay

Space exploration is the discovery and exploration of outer space by means of space technology. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights and by robotic spacecraft. While the observation of objects in space, known as astronomy, predates reliable recorded history, it was the development of large and relatively efficient rockets during the early 20th century that allowed physical space exploration to become a reality. Common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, uniting different nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries. Space exploration has often been used as a proxy competition for geopolitical rivalries such as the Cold War. The early era of space exploration was driven by a â€Å"Space Race† between the Soviet Union and the United States, the launch of the first man-made object to orbit the Earth, the USSR’s Sputnik 1, on 4 October 1957, and the first Moon landing by the American Apollo 11 craft on 20 July 1969 are often taken as the boundaries for this initial period. See more: Recruitment and selection process essay The Soviet space program achieved many of the first milestones, including the first living being in orbit in 1957, the first human spaceflight (Yuri Gagarin aboard Vostok 1) in 1961, the first spacewalk (by Aleksei Leonov) on 18 March 1965, the first automatic landing on another celestial body in 1966, and the launch of the first space station (Salyut 1) in 1971. After the first 20 years of exploration, focus shifted from one-off flights to renewable hardware, such as the Space Shuttle program, and from competition to cooperation as with the International Space Station (ISS). With the substantial completion of the ISS following STS-133 in March 2011, plans for space exploration by the USA remain in flux. Constellation, a Bush Administration program for a return to the Moon by 2020 was judged inadequately funded and unrealistic by an expert review panel reporting in 2009. The Obama Administration proposed a revision of Constellation in 2010 to focus on the development of the capability for crewed missions beyond low earth orbit (LEO), envisioning extending the operation of the ISS beyond 2020, transferring the development of launch vehicles for human crews from NASA to the private sector, and developing technology to enable missions to beyond LEO, such as Earth/Moon L1, the Moon, Earth/Sun L2, near-earth asteroids, and Phobos or Mars orbit.[5] As of March 2011, the US Senate and House of Representatives are still working towards a compromise NASA funding bill, which will probably terminate Constellation and fund development of a heavy lift launch vehicle (HLLV).[6] In the 2000s, the People’s Republic of China initiated a successful manned spaceflight program, while the European Union, Japan, and India have also planned future manned space missions. China, Russia, Japan, and India have advocated manned missions to the Moon during the 21st century, while the European Union has advocated manned missions to both the Moon and Mars during the 21st century. From the 1990s onwards, private interests began promoting space tourism and then private space exploration of the Moon (see Google Lunar X Prize). Benefits of this to Mankind There are critics who disagree with the expenditure on space exploration, which they claim can better be used to solve earthly problems. However, they seem to forget that this is one of the fields which tests a man’s intellect. But, how does a common man draw benefits of space exploration? The advances made in field of space exploration can be well used in other fields such as medicine, agriculture, etc. The following is the list of benefits of space exploration to mankind: Global Positioning System: The mankind depends on the sea trade for transportation of food grains, fossil fuels, metal ores, etc. Global navigation system, GPS helps in timely delivery of these essential goods by providing the ships with essential navigation information. The GNS services are made available using networks of satellites which also enables satellite Internet and satellite phones. Weather Forecast and Agriculture: Gone are the days, when we used to take an umbrella with us while going out if there were black clouds in the sky. Now we can rely on the weather reports updated on an hourly basis. The accurate weather forecast is possible only because of the satellites in the space. The satellites also help us in predicting the crop yields, pest infestation and the area under cultivation. Natural Calamities: It is easy to predict natural calamities such as floods, storms, tornadoes, hurricanes and to locate wildfires and their extent with the help of satellites. Minerals and Mining: Minerals buried deep under the Earth’s surface can be located using satellites. Precious fossil fuels can be found with the help of satellites. Electronics: The field of electronics and computers have also benefited from the space exploration. The astronauts have manufactured miniature electronic parts that could only be produced in the space during their experiments in the space stations and space shuttles. Asteroids: It is believed that an asteroid strike eliminated the dinosaurs on the Earth. One of the benefits of space exploration is that we know about the thousands of asteroids and we can also be vigilant about their â€Å"drifts†. May be we could prevent ‘dinosaurian death of mankind’, if and when an asteroid is positioned to repeat history. If it happens, it would be because of the knowledge which is the direct benefit of space exploration. Energy Source: The scientists and researchers all over the world are attempting to harness the power of nuclear fusion. The process which enables the Sun to produce energy in abundance. It is believed that quantity of electricity generated using 1kg of hydrogen would be equivalent to that of 11,000 metric tons of coal. Medicine: Another field to glean the benefits of the satellite exploration is that of medicine. Metal alloys that are manufactured to be used in spacecraft and space shuttles are also used in the health care industry. Nitinol, an alloy is used to make braces. The miniature electronic components which were developed for the space program can be used in electronic pain-control device that some patients need to use. The implantable insulin pump is based on the mechanical robot arm developed for the Mars Voyager probe. The space exploration benefits also encompasses the field of communication which needs no explanation. The applications of knowledge and the technologies, that are the outcome of the man’s efforts to explore space, are making his life easier indeed! Academic performance and technology Essay Space exploration is the discovery and exploration of outer space by means of space technology. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights and by robotic spacecraft. While the observation of objects in space, known as astronomy, predates reliable recorded history, it was the development of large and relatively efficient rockets during the early 20th century that allowed physical space exploration to become a reality. Common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, uniting different nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries. Space exploration has often been used as a proxy competition for geopolitical rivalries such as the Cold War. The early era of space exploration was driven by a â€Å"Space Race† between the Soviet Union and the United States, the launch of the first man-made object to orbit the Earth, the USSR’s Sputnik 1, on 4 October 1957, and the first Moon landing by the American Apollo 11 craft on 20 July 1969 are often taken as the boundaries for this initial period. See more: The Issues Concerning Identity Theft Essay The Soviet space program achieved many of the first milestones, including the first living being in orbit in 1957, the first human spaceflight (Yuri Gagarin aboard Vostok 1) in 1961, the first spacewalk (by Aleksei Leonov) on 18 March 1965, the first automatic landing on another celestial body in 1966, and the launch of the first space station (Salyut 1) in 1971. After the first 20 years of exploration, focus shifted from one-off flights to renewable hardware, such as the Space Shuttle program, and from competition to cooperation as with the International Space Station (ISS). With the substantial completion of the ISS following STS-133 in March 2011, plans for space exploration by the USA remain in flux. Constellation, a Bush Administration program for a return to the Moon by 2020 was judged inadequately funded and unrealistic by an expert review panel reporting in 2009. The Obama Administration proposed a revision of Constellation in 2010 to focus on the development of the capability for crewed missions beyond low earth orbit (LEO), envisioning extending the operation of the ISS beyond 2020, transferring the development of launch vehicles for human crews from NASA to the private sector, and developing technology to enable missions to beyond LEO, such as Earth/Moon L1, the Moon, Earth/Sun L2, near-earth  asteroids, and Phobos or Mars orbit. [5] As of March 2011, the US Senate and House of Representatives are still working towards a compromise NASA funding bill, which will probably terminate Constellation and fund development of a heavy lift launch vehicle (HLLV).[6] In the 2000s, the People’s Republic of China initiated a successful manned spaceflight program, while the European Union, Japan, and India have also planned future manned space missions. China, Russia, Japan, and India have advocated manned missions to the Moon during the 21st century, while the European Union has advocated manned missions to both the Moon and Mars during the 21st century. From the 1990s onwards, private interests began promoting space tourism and then private space exploration of the Moon (see Google Lunar X Prize). Benefits of this to Mankind There are critics who disagree with the expenditure on space exploration, which they claim can better be used to solve earthly problems. However, they seem to forget that this is one of the fields which tests a man’s intellect. But, how does a common man draw benefits of space exploration? The advances made in field of space exploration can be well used in other fields such as medicine, agriculture, etc. The following is the list of benefits of space exploration to mankind: Global Positioning System: The mankind depends on the sea trade for transportation of food grains, fossil fuels, metal ores, etc. Global navigation system, GPS helps in timely delivery of these essential goods by providing the ships with essential navigation information. The GNS services are made available using networks of satellites which also enables satellite Internet and satellite phones. Weather Forecast and Agriculture: Gone are the days, when we used to take an umbrella with us while going out if there were black clouds in the sky. Now we can rely on the weather reports updated on an hourly basis. The accurate weather forecast is possible only because of the satellites in the space. The satellites also help us in predicting the crop yields, pest infestation and the area under cultivation. Natural Calamities: It is easy to predict natural calamities such as floods, storms, tornadoes, hurricanes and to locate wildfires and their extent with the help of satellites. Minerals and Mining: Minerals buried deep under the Earth’s surface can be located using  satellites. Precious fossil fuels can be found with the help of satellites. Electronics: The field of electronics and computers have also benefited from the space exploration. The astronauts have manufactured miniature electronic parts that could only be produced in the space during their experiments in the space stations and space shuttles. Asteroids: It is believed that an asteroid strike eliminated the dinosaurs on the Earth. One of the benefits of space exploration is that we know about the thousands of asteroids and we can also be vigilant about their â€Å"drifts†. May be we could prevent ‘dinosaurian death of mankind’, if and when an asteroid is positioned to repeat history. If it happens, it would be because of the knowledge which is the direct benefit of space exploration. Energy Source: The scientists and researchers all over the world are attempting to harness the power of nuclear fusion. The process which enables the Sun to produce energy in abundance. It is believed that quantity of electricity generated using 1kg of hydrogen would be equivalent to that of 11,000 metric tons of coal. Medicine: Another field to glean the benefits of the satellite exploration is that of medicine. Metal alloys that are manufactured to be used in spacecraft and space shuttles are also used in the health care industry. Nitinol, an alloy is used to make braces. The miniature electronic components which were developed for the space program can be used in electronic pain-control device that some patients need to use. The implantable insulin pump is based on the mechanical robot arm developed for the Mars Voyager probe. The space exploration benefits also encompasses the field of communication which needs no explanation. The applications of knowledge and the technologies, that are the outcome of the man’s efforts to explore space, are making his life easier indeed!

Intermediaries of IP Commercialization and Its Business Operation in Term Paper

Intermediaries of IP Commercialization and Its Business Operation in the Open Innovation, such as Non-Practicing Entities (NPEs - Term Paper Example The research and development team of organizations focus on developing and fabricating creative ideas that can help the company in coming out with a product that meets the evolving need of the customer and more. While in the recent past most organizations operated on the principle of closed innovation that required the companies generate, develop, and market their own ideas, the past few years have witnessed a dramatic shift towards open innovation model where the companies â€Å"commercialize external (as well as internal) ideas by deploying outside (as well as in-house) pathways to the market† (Chesbrough, 2003, p36). This new model has gained wide popularity owing to its wider perspective and application that allows companies to create value through an open culture and closer integration with its surrounding environment. Open innovation model is based on free flowing knowledge and information sources that contribute to value addition for both manufacturers as well as end co nsumers. While the model does allow businesses to utilise and exploit new opportunities, the challenge lies in tapping key knowledge resources and expertise that have the potential to generate profitable ventures. The closed innovation business model applied strict controls over its intellectual property rights (IPR) and the management focused on guarding its IPR to prevent competitors from stealing their innovative ideas. But in the age of open innovation model, businesses focused their strengths on commercializing their ideas and allowing its competitors to use their IP and purchase other firms IP to improve profitability. The organizational strategies today work on defining new strategies that enable them to exploit the open innovation model for creating new ventures and expanding their existing scope of markets and revenue towards potential revenue addition sources. The focus is to utilise their existing resources and technologies to accomodate innovative ideas that open new sou rces of market capturing strategies and expanding operational scope (Chesbrough, 2003). The key issue that arises from the open innovation model is the protection and commercialization of intellectual property (IP) and the different intermediary channels used for this purpose. It must be noted in this context that IP is an intangible asset that is not only difficult to valuate but also involves a lot of legal risks. There are number of intermediary channels that enable easy and smooth transaction of IP between innovators, funders and prospective users who develop products based on the IP. The paper provides a deeper insight into the operations and mechanisms of these intermediary channels that cash in on firms looking for IP that creates new opportunities in an open innovation environment. Intellectual property – the concept Before going into the details of IP intermediaries and its commercialization aspects it is important to understand the concept of intellectual property a nd its basics. Intellectual property can refer to any innovative idea and this idea has the potential to

Globalization and Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Globalization and Education - Essay Example Indeed this is a much pragmatic approach taken on by the forces that are the proponents and supporters of globalization. Similar is the case with education that has helped shape up the world of present times. Since educational domains are appreciated on a global basis, it would be true to suggest that these are advancements which have helped the global cause more than anything else. It has taken care of the students who are getting educated in various nations of the world, irrespective of their nationalities. Hence the globalization discussion has not relied upon a single country or entity rather the focus has been diverted towards bringing all the nations under the umbrella of sharing knowledge without any borders. It is a well-known fact that globalization and education go hand in hand. This is because both of these ideologies complement each other, and look after the basis of bringing enough sanity within this world. They account for success on a regular basis and helps turn devel oping countries into fully developed ones. There is an immense understanding available which suggests for globalization and education to bring rich dividends for any society of the world, irrespective of the finances diverted towards these ideologies. ... use they then believe that if they give their best towards these settings, they will be able to achieve serious success and that too without paying a high cost (Ghemawat 76). The situation seems quite a comfortable one and this must be documented by the people who believe in such domains which prosper globalization and education in the most righteous sense. Both these ideologies have long been appreciated by the scholars and researchers as they know well the strengths that come once globalization and education are given the room. The learned men and women within any society of the world understand how societies work and thus they set the basis for exploring the new bases upon which success can be envisaged. Concentrating more towards globalization here, it is of paramount importance to know that this concept allows people to view their own selves as being global citizens more than the citizens of a particular nation. It gives them the liberty to know about domains which they believed were different in the past. The countries do shape up their ideologies and beliefs but it is the global environment which shall eventually be their respective basis in the coming times, and even so now (Agnello 152). These convictions are changing for the better because the world has become a single, unified basis for the betterment of the human community rather than different clusters of nations which exist on the face of the earth. The concept of globalization is such that there will be different avenues upon which success can be envisaged. These look to cater to the global populace extracting the resources for just about everyone. Yet in this day and age, this perfect scenario does not come about that easily. There are apprehensions on the part of the underdeveloped nations which the

Enterprise Architecture Q&A Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Enterprise Architecture Q&A - Assignment Example The business principle aims at ensuring that disruptions to the enterprise operations resulting from system interruptions are decreased. Therefore, technical architecture must provide users of the enterprise the capability to continue their business functions (Minoli, 2008). Hence, because the business principle is business continuity then the technical architecture is likely to adapt to ensure continuity of business function through capabilities established by the enterprise. When the business principle changes to maximize benefits of the enterprise, this ensures little fragmentation of the technical architecture while maximizing investment that serves enterprise-wide purpose as opposed to solutions that serve individual business units (Minoli, 2008). Because the business principle changed to maximize benefits, the technical architecture would now need to focus on priorities set by the entire enterprise to avoid duplication that can be expensive. In the above CRUD matrix, three processes are identified that include student registration, tutor support and coaching. Online registration provides information regarding the student that can be edited and accessed as needed. Tutor support and coaching enable a student to access the necessary course document while relating with the tutor

John stuart mill (for history of psychology class) Essay

John stuart mill (for history of psychology class) - Essay Example He left Scotland four years later and went to London. James Stuart's London life has been divided into three periods: that of struggle - 1802-1819, the period of his most successful works - 1819- 1829 and the last one, from 1830 to his death, in 1836, when he both enjoyed fame and had been made Head Examiner in the India House. As to his inner life, some features are to be noticed: the negativist attitude towards religion, the strength of character, the critical and analytical spirit - "there is nothing which such a spirit will not analyze, nothing which it will not dare to comprehend" (Courtney, 1888, p.20), the rationality, lack of imagination and sympathy. Rationality and strength of character are to be seen both in his personal life, in his relationship with his children and friends, deprived of all emotion and feeling, and in his literary works. And it's according to the principles of pure logic that his son, John Stuart Mill was educated. We find an important amount of data concerning John Stuart Mill's life in his own autobiography. In the first chapter of his own book, before starting with the presentation of his childhood and early education, Mill states the reasons of his writing this work: "I do not for a moment imagine that any part of what I h... tory, it may be useful that there should be some record of an education which was unusual and remarkable, and which, whatever else it may have done, has proved how much more than is commonly supposed may be taught, and will taught, in those early years which, in the common modes of what is called instruction, are little better than wasted. It has also seemed to me that in an age of transition in opinions, there may be somewhat both of interest and of benefit in noting the successive phases of any mind which was always pressing forward, equally ready to learn and to unlearn either from its own thoughts or from those of others. But a motive which weighs more with me than either of these, is a desire to make acknowledgment of the debts which my intellectual and moral development owes to other persons; some of them of recognized eminence, others less known than they deserve to be, and the one to whom most of all is due, one whom the world had no opportunity of knowing." (Mill, 1944, p.1) As we can see, from the very beginning, John Stuart Mill states the influence that others had on his own development. From the following pages we find out, in the context of the presentation of his first years of life, who these others were. Born on the 20th of May, 1806, the English philosopher started learning Greek when he was three years old. In his book, this piece of information is presented as told by others, as he himself doesn't remember when he took his first Greek class. He reads Greek masterpieces: Herodotus, Socrates, Diogenes Laertius and Plato's writings and, when he is eight years old, he starts learning Latin. It's also during his early childhood that he learns arithmetic but most of his time is occupied with the reading of books - mostly history books. The child makes

Asian Economic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Asian Economic - Essay Example â€Å"The 1993 World Bank policy research report† (Ryan 802) named The East Asian Miracle, identified eight â€Å"high-performing Asian economies (HPAEs)† (Ryan 802) and classified them into three distinct groups according to the duration of uninterrupted â€Å"positive real economic growth rates between 1960 and 1990† (Ryan 802). Japan alone occupied the first group. By the 1960s, Japan had already become matured as an economy by maintaining a remarkably high focus on economic development. Hence it had become a leader with an enviable record showing sustained economic growth for thirty consecutive years. The second group consisted of four countries recognized as ‘four Asian tigers’; namely, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea. All these four economies had witnessed soaring economic growth rates consistently since the mid-1960s until the mid 1990s. Three other countries, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia, were referred to as â€Å"newly indu strializing economies (NIEs)† (Ryan 802) by the World Bank. These countries that made the third group of HPAEs had been included in the list of the HPAEs in the beginning of 1970s. The outstanding growth rates and economic performances reflected by the eight nations had one thing in common. Excepting Japan, which had been categorized as a developed country by the 1960s, all the other seven countries had adopted strategic macroeconomic policies and implemented them to manage their economic activities, coupled with carefully selected policy interventions by their individual governments. Research reveals that in all these cases, the government played a decisive role in mobilization of resources. Government policies were assisted by foreign direct investment (FDI) and technological transfer from other industrialized nations of the world, particularly Japan and the USA (Ryan 802). Causes of the financial collapse in Asian economies Heavy dependence on cheap labor input Initially, c ompetitive advantage of these countries was founded on their endowment of abundant labor. Since supply of labor was abundant in these countries, labor input was cheap, which created competitive advantage for these countries in adopting labor intensive technologies of production. However, as the knowledge intensity increased in the exports made by these countries they increasingly started to rely on highly skilled labor force that was more productive than low skilled laborers and was also more disciplined. Krugman had made a controversial contention on the phenomenon of economic growth of the Asian economies (65). The renowned economist had put that these countries would inevitably face a downfall in their economic growth. Since the lofty growth rates of these countries were achieved principally through incorporation of higher amounts of labor input along with capital input into the production process of these economies. This led to higher output and hence higher GDP, but, did not in crease the net level of productivity. This was a stage when the economies were moving along the revenue curve in the zone of increasing returns. According to Krugman, it could be anticipated that these economies would reach the range of diminishing returns (Krugman 65) that would ultimately

Use of the slit-lamp for anterior segment examination of the eye Case Study

Use of the slit-lamp for anterior segment examination of the eye - Case Study Example In my clinical placement in the Ophthalmology, I had a chance to examine a patient who presented complaining of decrease in vision. For confidentiality and ethical reasons, the identity of this patient remains undisclosed. However, this 65-year-old gentleman presented to the clinic, and when I was instructed to do a slit-lamp examination, it felt that it was an opportunity to use academic learning in practice, and I was very excited. In order to arrive at a diagnosis, I obtained these systemic medical history and family ocular history, since these are important for assessing a patient's risk factors for ocular disease. Just as with other body systems, reliable historical information allows the clinician to more appropriately direct the physical examination (Quillen, 1999).I probed into his recent complaints in terms of the onset, duration, and associated symptoms, since knowledge about these can guide me to the correct diagnosis. I asked him about his prior good and equal vision in b oth eyes. Then I asked him whether the problem were on the both eyes, and how could he not note it for last 1 year. He said that he was going on with his frequent changes in glasses, which he thought was natural at his age. While watching television, he suddenly discovered that his vision in the right eye was a lot better than the left, and when he attempted to watch TV with one eye, he was surprised to discover that with the left eye alone, the pictures were hazy. Moreover, he could see better at the periphery than at the centre. He had no pain, distortion of the sight, and no double vision. These were very suggestive and significant pieces of information since they narrow down the clinical differential diagnosis further, and helps the examiner to design the clinical examination in a better way. The suggestive better peripheral vision, differential vision between the eyes and absence of distortion, pain, and double vision led to the impression that I need to focus in the anterior s egment of the eye while conducting his examination (Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group, 2001). General Examination When I decided to carry out an examination, I felt that a patient with decreasing vision requires a complete examination to determine the cause of the visual decline. Therefore, I started to do a systematic examination. I performed a general examination of the eyes in good diffuse light, and I felt that it would lead me to the possible diagnosis, so later I can do a slit-lamp examination. The general examination began with the examination of the eyelids and the conjunctival sac. He was elderly and had some amount of sagging of the eyelids. On palpation, the lid margins did not demonstrate any swelling. There was no redness in the conjunctivae. The eyelashes were normal. There was no evidence of any inflammation or blepharitis in both the lid margins. In order to examine the conjunctival sac, it was necessary to expose the palpebral conjunctiva and the fornices. Due to age, his fornices were shallow. There was no crusting, follicles, conjunctival papillae, or pseudomembrane indicating chronic or acute inflammation contributing his diminished vision. I drew down his lower lid while he was asked to look towards the ceiling, and the lower fornix looked normal. This excluded any inflammation of the lower lid and swelling that can compromise vision temporarily. The upper lid was everted to examine the upper palpebral conjunc

Lab Report Microbiology Essay Example for Free

Lab Report Microbiology Essay Abstract Dairy food staff such as soft cheese,cream cheese,raw milk,sour cream,yoghurt and probiotic yoghurt products can be a rich source of diverse lactic acid bacteria.The objective of this lab practical was to isolate lactic acid bacteria(LAB) form raw milk,establishment of pure cultures of LAB,identify LAB and phage recovery and enumeration of recoverd phage.Raw milk was chosen as a sample so as to have a more positive result.To identify bacteria Lab isolated from raw milk,biochemical,morphological ,physiological and cultural characteristics were employed. The purification of isolates was done by moving Gram +ve ro ds and cocci shaped bacteria to selective media MRS and M-17 plates. The isolates were sub cultured till pure isolates were got. From 20 raw milk samples a total of 150 LAB positives were got, in which 22 and 128 were identified as lactic acid cocci and lactic acid bacilli,respectively. Also, our biochemical tests showed the occurrence 11 and 13 of 11 and 13 Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris and Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. cremoris among lactic acid cocci.In the case of lactic acid bacilli, Lactobacillus helveticus 18; Lactobacillus plantarum 37; Lactobacillus brevis 8; Lactobacillus casei subsp. casei 18 and Lactobacillus delactobacillirueckii subsp. bulgaricus 47 was found. In the lactic acid cocci and bacilli, Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. cremoris and Lactobacillus delactobacillirueckii subsp. bulgaricus were found to be the more dominant species, respectively.Bacterial phages were inducted from the Lactic acid bacteria and enumerated by using several biochemical techniques. INTRODUCTION To produce flavor and acidity at desired levels,fermented milk products are prepared in controlled fermentation of milk. (Thapa, 2000). Starter culture organisms in this fermentations belongs to bacteria family known as the Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB). These LABS are identified by of morphological,and physiological characteristics.LAB are widely found in nature and almost in all micro flora.LAB are gram positive bacteria and are important in food fermentation. Other species of the genus Lactobacillus, Lactococcus and Leuconostoc are added to this group. The lactic acid  fermentation process has been known by human for long time and even applied in some activities. LAB has also been an efficient method of natural preservation.Furthermore lab determine the nutritional value,flavor and texture of food and feeds). Industrialization of the biological ‘revolution’ of foodstuffs has LAB an ecomonic boost because they are important in safety aspects of fermented products. Lactic acid is used by food industry as an acidulent and preservative for the production of sour curd cheese and yoghurt (Linkater and Griffin, 1971). Lactococci are the major mesophilic bacteria used for acid production in dairy fermentations and used as starter cultures in the manufacture of a vast range of dairy foods including fermented milks, lactic butter, cheese and lactic casein (Ward et al., 2002). MATERIALS AND METHODS Raw milk samples: Raw milk samples were collected in sterilized specimen bottles from the local dairy shops around the university,including the raw milk from the university’s dairy department.The raw milk were kept at 4 for more use. lactic acid bacteria isolation from raw milk: The samples were weighed and homogenized aseptically.Each sample, a 1.10 dilution was made by using peptone water then by making a 10 pack of continued dilution. The 0.1 ml taken from each dilution was then sub cultured duplicately into the M 17 and MRS agars used for isolating LAB (Badis et al., 2004a; Guessas and Kihal, 2004).In order to counter yeast growth the media were then added with 100 mg of cyclo-heximide prior to being incubated in optimum temperatures ( 30 °C) for 3 days (Beukes et al., 2001; Kalavrouzioti et al., 2005). The agar plates of MSR were incubated in anaerobic conditions using the Gas-Pack system at 30 °C for 3 days to provide an optimum temperature for growing the different genus of bacteria. M17 agar plates were also incubated in anaerobic conditions at 30 °C for 2 days to set up an optimal temperature for growing lactococci.Higher dilutions were used to perform total counts. Colonies were then selected randomly and the streak plating method employed to purify the stains. The strains were kept in 2 conditions including at 4 °C (for MRS and M17 plates ) and at -20 °C (for M17 and MRS broth) withh by 20% glycerol. Identification of the bacterial strains:The strains were subjected to gram staining,catalase and spore formation tests. (Harrigan and McCance, 1976).All Colonies were characterized in MRS and M 17 agars.The strains that gave gram positive and catalse negative results were set aside for further identification.(Sharpe, 1979).The growth of the bacteria at different temperatures of between Growth 10-45 °C for 3-6 days , resistance to 60 °C for 30 min (Sherman test), growth in the presence of 2 to 6 % NaCl and different pHs (4.5 and 6.5) were used to identify the strains of LAB. Arginine and asculin hydrolysis,citrate utilistaion, acetone productionformation of gas from glucose and production of dextran from sucrose were also determined. The starins were then tested for fermentation of L-arabinose, D-xylose, galactose, D-fructose, sorbitol, lactose, melibiose, saccharose, D-raffinose, melezitose, mannose and glucose. Bacterial growth in the different temperatures were confirmed by turbidity change in MRS or M17 after incubation(after 24,48 and 72 hrs).Microbial tolerance to the diverse levels of salt, pH and heat was evaluated. Arginine dihydrolase agar and asculin acid agar were used to perform the hydrolysis tests. For determination of citrate utilization and acetone production, citrate and MR-VP agars were used. MRS or M17 broths with Durham tubes were used for determination of gas production and the detrin production from sucrose was done in MSR.To assess the sugars fermentation in a medium a solution with the following composition was used (gL-1): bovine extract, 10.0; neopepton, 10.0; yeast extract, 5.0; K2HPO4, 2.0; CH3COONa+3H2O, 5.0; diamonium citrate, 2.0; MgSO4, 0.2; MnSO4, 0.05; brom-cresol-purple, 0.17; tween 80, 1 mL. Carbon utilization was also tested. Phage induction MRSA broth liquid culutures were equally divided into two sterile tubes.Each tube was labeled as ‘mitomycin C’ and the other as ‘control’. 500 µl of micomycin was added to the tube labelld as ‘mitomycin’ and ascpetic techniques of flaming the neck before and after adding the mycomycin. A starch agar plate marked STA containing nutrient agr with soluble starch was already provided.A casein agar plate that contained nutrient agar mixture added skim milk was given and marked CA. All the three plates were inoculated by streaking of the MRSA Lactobacillus lattis culture. This was  done with the help of the loop. The loop was flamed and a colony of the culture was collected. The plates were then streaked with the culture. The plates were then incubated for 12-18 hours at 37oC. The bacteria were also transferred into the nutrient agar plate to set up for biochemical tests.. Enumeration of bacterial phages Phage stock was diluted to achieve a plaque count on plates of 100-250 pfu (plaque forming units).All the dilutions were mixed thoroughly in a sterile saline. The phage was then plated by removing one soft agar at a time,then adding 0.3ml of bacterial suspension to it.This was also followed by 0.1 of diluted phage The agar tube was rolled between palms to mix and quickly pour to suface of warm base agar plate. Quick gentle figure patterns were done on the surface of the base plate agar The agar was allowed to harden and incubated for 35 degree celcious for 8 hours. Results Catalase test After incubation, hydrogen peroxide was added to the one colony on the nutrient agar plate. Small bubbles of oxygen wereformed which indicated a positive result for catalase. Figure 2 – The catalase test Starch hydrolysis test When iodine solution was poured to the starch agar plate and allowed to rest for close to 2 minutes,the plate turned blue which indicated the presence of starch that has not been hydrolysed. A B Fig 1 -Growth of MRSA Lactobacillus lattis on starch agar plate (A) before the addition of iodine solution and (B) after the addition of iodine solution. Agar test The position of the growth in the tube was observed. The growth was throughout the tube, but near the surface, the growth was highest which  indicated being aerotolerant. Figure 3- The bacteria stabbed in both the tubes containing NA and MRS. Carbohydrate fermentation substrates API test strips were used to identify the bacteria and the results showed it was Lactococcus lactis sspcremoris 1. Casein Hydrolysis The casein agar plates were examined to see any clearing around the colonies after being incubated for 48 hours. There was no clearing of the agar around the bacterial growth. Therefore, the results showed negative casein hydrolysis. Gelatin hydrolysis Saturated ammonium sulpahate was added onto the gelatine agar plate there was no precipitation indicating negative hydrolysis Figure 4 – The results obtained after the data was entered on the computer database. Figure 5 – The difference between a control and the samples of bacteria. Test for phage induction Once mitomycin C was added to the MRS liquid broth, it was observed for the induction of phages. It showed there was a clear lysis of the turbid culture. Figure 6 – Comparison between a control and bacteria culture containing mitomycin C All 150 Gram +non-sporeforming ans catalase negative were charcterised as follows: Mesophilic homo-fermentative cocci, 11 isolated:It was characterized by  arginine dihydrolase negative, arginine hydrolysis negative, citrate negative and acetoin negative This gropu was identifies as Lactococcus lactis subsp. Cremoris .The microorganisms were spherically shape.They occurred in pairs with non motile, facultative anaerobic fermentative metabolism. Mesophilic heterofermentative cocci, 13 isolated:Microorganisms in this group had a close relation with Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. cremoris . They were arginine negative,glucose positive,acetonoine positive and dextrane positive. Lactobacilli bacteria, 128 isolated: The group was divided into 3: (1) Mesophilic facultative heterofermentative Lactobacilli (55 isolates)Included Lactobacilli plantarum (37 isolates)and Lactobacilli. casei subsp. casei (36 isolates, (2) Thermophilic obligate homo-fermentative Lactobacilli (64 isolates) Included Lactobacilli. helveticus (17 isolates) and Lactobacilli. delactobacillirueckii subsp. bulgaricus (47 isolates). They were lactose positive andfructose positive. (3) mesophilic obligate hetero-fermentative Lactobacilli (8 isolates) Included Lactobacilli. brevis (18 isolates) Discussion It was discovered that mesophilic facultative hetero-fermantative lactobacilli group was divided into two;37 isolates were identified to be lactobacilli plantarum ans 18 isolates as lactobacilli casei subsp.casei.This results are also consistent with other research works such as the isolation of lactic acid bacteria from Maasai traditional fermented milk(Mathara et al.,2004). For the second group,17 isolates were identified as Lactobacilli plantarum and 47 isolates identified as lactobacilli delactobacillirueskii subs.bulgaricus. Furthermore,lactobacilli brevis isolates(8) were identified using mannose and melezitose fermentation. In the cocci group,12 and 22 isolates were identified as Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. cremoris and Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris. Respectively.This number is low an its attributed to the fact lactic acid cocci are not able to compete with lactic acid bacilli in mixed cultures(Teuber and Geis, 1981; Togo et al., 2002). LAB are presenta in dairy manufacturing as starter cultures.There are specific fermentation processes that have been developed to maximize the growth of desired LAB  species.Some of the species are fastidious organisms like Lactobacilli delactobacillirueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Lactobacilli helveticus (Bottazzi, 1988). Isolates that belong to lactobacilli plantarum group are shown to be dominant members of LAB flora of acid –fermented stuff(tempoyuk).Morever, Lactobacilli. brevis group and Ln. mesenteroides isolates were also found (Leisner et al., 2001). This isolates have alos been found in South African Traditional fermeneted products.There are also other isolates that have been found in raw gaot’s milk of Algerian origin.This species include Lactobacilli. helveticus, Lactobacilli. plantarum, Lactobacilli. delactobacillirueckii subsp. bulgaricus, Lactobacilli. brevis and Lc. lactis subsp. lactis (Badis et al., 2004b). In chili bo, Lactobacilli. plantarum isolates were found to be the most dominant organism(Leisner et al. 1999). REFERENCES Accolas, J.P. and J. Auclair, 1977. Determination of the acid producing activity of concentrated frozen suspensions of lactic acid bacteria. Lait, 50: 609-626. Ammor, S., C. Rachman, S. Chaillou, H. Prevost and X. Dousset et al., 2005. Phenotypic and genotypic identification of lactic acid bacteria isolated from a small-scale facility producing traditional dry sausages. Food Microbiol., 22: 373-382. CrossRef | Badis, A., D. Guetarni, B. Moussa-Boudjema, D.E. Henni and M. Kihal, 2004. Identification and technological properties of lactic acid bacteria isolated from raw goats milk of four Algerian races. Food Microbiol., 21: 579-588. CrossRef | Badis, A., D. Guetarni, B. Moussa-Boudjema, D.E. Henni, M.E. Tornadijo and M. Kihal, 2004. Identification of cultivable lactic acid bacteria isolated from Algerian raw goats milk and evaluation of their technological properties. Food Microbiol., 21: 343-349. CrossRef | Beukes, E.M., B.H. Bester and J.F. Mostert, 2001. The microbiology of South African traditional fermented milks. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 63: 189-197. CrossRef | PubMed | Direct Link | Bottazzi, V., 1988. An introduction to rod shaped lactic-acid bacteria. Biochemie, 70: 303-315. PubMed | Collins, M.D., B.A. Phillips and P. Zanoni, 1989. Deoxyribonucleic acid homology studies of Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus paracasei sp. nov., subsp. paracasei and subsp. Tolerans and Lactobacillus rhamnosus sp. nov., comb. nov. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol., 39: 105-108. CrossRef | Guessas, B. and M. Kihal, 2004. Characterization of lactic acid bacteria isolated from Algerian arid zone raw goats milk. Afr. J. Biotechnol., 3: 339-342. Direct Link | Harrigan, W.F. and M.E. MaCance, 1976. Laboratory Methods in Food and Dairy Microbiology. Revised Edn., Academic Press, New York, pp: 33-200. Hemme, D. and C. Foucaud-Scheunemann, 2004. Leuconostoc, characteristics, use in dairy technology and prospects in functional foods. Int. Dairy J., 14: 467-494. CrossRef | Herrero, M., B. Mayo, B. Gonzalez and J.E. Suarez, 1996. Evaluation of technologically important traits in lactic acid bacteria isolated from spontaneous fermentation. J. Applied Bacteriol., 82: 565-570. Direct Link | Holt, J.G., 1994. Bergeys Manual of Determinative Bacteriology. 9th Edn., Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, Pages: 787. Kalavrouzioti, I., M. Hatzikamari, E. Litopoulou-Tzanetaki and N. Tzanetakis, 2005. Production of hard cheese from caprine milk by the use of two types of probiotic cultures as adjuncts. Int. J. Dairy Technol., 58: 30-38. CrossRef | Lee, B., 1996. Bacteria- Based Processes and Products. In: Fundamentals of Food Biotechnology, Lee, B. (Ed.), Wiley-Inter Science, New York, pp: 219-290. Leisner, J.J., B. Pot, H. Christensen, G. Rusul and J.O. Olsen et al., 1999. Identification of lactic acid bacteria from Chilli Bo, a Malaysian food ingredient. Applied Environ. Microbiol., 65: 599-605. PubMed | Leisner, J.J., M. Vancanneyt, G. Rusul, B. Pot, K. Lefebvre, A. Fresi and L.K. Tee, 2001. Identification of lactic acid bacteria constituting the predominating microflora in an acid-fermented condiment (Tempoyak) popular in Malaysia. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 63: 149-157. Linkater, P.M. and C.J. Griffin, 1971. Immobilized living cell fermentation. J. Dairy Res., 38: 127-136. Lipinsky, E.S., 1981. Growth and activity of Lactococcus lactis ssp. cremoris in skim milk. J. Sci., 212: 1465-1471. Mathara, J.M., U. Schillinger, P.M. Kutima, S.K. Mbugua and W.H. Holzapfel, 2004. Isolation, identification and characterization of the dominant microorganisms of kule naoto: The Maasai traditional fermented milk in Kenya. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 94: 267-278. PubMed | Mayeux, J.V., W.W.E. Sandine and P.R. Elliker, 1962. A selective medium for detecting Leuconostoc organisms in mixed strain starter cultures. J. Dairy Sci., 45: 655-656. Muyanja, C.M.B.K., J.A. Narvhus, J. Treimo and T. Langsrud, 2003. Isolation, characterization and identification of lactic acid bacteria from bushera: A Ugandan traditional fermented beverage. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 80: 201-210. CrossRef | Olarte, C., S. Sanz, E. Gonzalez- Fandos and P. Torre, 2000. The effect of a commercial starter culture addition on the ripening of an artisanal goats cheese (Cameros Cheese). J. Applied Microbiol., 88: 421-429. PubMed | Samelis, J., F. Maurogenakis and J. Metaxopoulos, 1994. Characterization of lactic acid bacteria isolated from naturally fermented Greek dry salami. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 23: 179-196. PubMed | Server-Busson, C., C. Foucaud and J.Y. Leveau, 1999. Selection of dairy Leuconostoc isolates for important technological properties. J. Dairy Res., 66: 245-256. CrossRef | Sharpe, M.E., 1979. Identification of the Lactic Acid Bacteria. In: Identification Methods for Microbiologists, Skinner, F.A. and D.W. Lovelock (Eds.). Academic Press, London, pp: 233-259. Stiles, M.E. and W.H. Holzapfel, 1997. Lactic acid bacteria of foods and their current taxonomy. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 36: 1-29. Direct Link | Terzic-Vidojevic, A., M. Vukasinovic, K. Veljovic, M. Ostojic and L. Topisirovic, 2007. Characterization of microflora in homemade Int. J. Food Microbiol., 114: 36-42. PubMed | Teuber, M. and A. Geis, 1981. The Family Streptococaceae (Non-Medical Aspect). In: The Prokaryotes: A Handbook on Habitats, Isolation and Identification of Bacteria, Starr, M.P., H. Stolp, H.G. Trueper, A. Balows and H.G. Schlegel (Eds.). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp: 1614-1630. Thapa, T., 2000. Small-Scale Milk Processing Technologies: Other Milk Products. FAO, Rome, Italy. Togo, C.A., S.B. Feresu and A.N. Mutukumira, 2002. Identification of lactic acid bacteria isolated from Opaque beer (Chibuku) for potential use as a starter culture. J. Food Technol. Afr., 7: 93-97. Direct Link | Tserovska, L., S. Stefanova and T. Yordanova, 2002. Identification of lactic acid bacteria isolated from Katyk, goats milk and Cheese. J. Cult. Collect., 3: 48-52. Direct Link | Ward, L.J.H., G.P. Davey, H.A. Heap and W.J. Kelly, 2002. Lactococcus Lactis. In: Encyclopedia of Dairy Science, Roginski, H., J.W. Fuquay and P.F. Fox (Eds.). Elsevier Sci. Ltd., London, pp: 1511-1516.

Review of related literature and studies Essay Example for Free

Review of related literature and studies Essay This chapter presents a review of related literature and studies that serving as a background and frame of preference upon which conceptual framework was formulated. This material gave much background and information for the present study. Related Literature (12 page single space) p 7-21 2. 1 Slavery 2. 1. 1 Timeline of Significant Events. The slave trade had a long history. The first importation of slaves by the Spanish vessels from Africa to America took place in 1522. The first African Slaves arrived in Virginia, USA in 1619. The English colonies start the lawful establishment of slavery in 1660 which included the United States. The start of the big waves of slave importations into the English colonies from Africa occurred in 1700. The slaves start to outnumber the English Americans in 1720. The Quakers start to fight against the evils of Slavery in 1750. The French and Indian War resulted to the expulsion of the French army from many parts of North America for ten years starting in 1753. The United States war for independence from Great Britain started in 1775 in the war of Lexington and Concord. The United States finally declared that it wanted to be independent from the Great Britain on July 9, 1776 . And, the Continental Congress of the United States formally approved their Articles of Confederation on July 9, 1778. And, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania finally abolished the practice of slavery. Great Britain and the United States formally signed the Treaty of Paris agreeing to stop the independence war between the two countries and to recognize the United States as a new nation. And, the Continental Congress sends the new Constitution to the state for ratification on September 28, 1783. George Washington is proclaimed as the first president of the United States on April 30, 1789. The Bill of Rights that contained the first ten amendments were approved by more than three fourths of the United States territory and becomes part of the United States Constitution. The United States bought Louisiana from France for fifteen million U. S. dollars. And the members of the United States formally made a law banning the importation of slaves into the United States . Further, the White Churches start their religious outreaches to the African American slaves. The United States quelled the revolt orchestrated by Nat Turner in Virginia. Abraham Lincoln was chosen by the people as the sixteenth president of the United States on March 4, 1861. General Robert Lee’s Confederate army formally surrenders and ends the Civil War on April 9, 1861. The thirteenth Amendment was finally approved by the United States Congress. Lastly, the United States Congress approves with finality the fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This amendment gives automatic citizenship to the slaves. This amendment also punishes those states that do not comply in with the Amendment to remove slavery by taking away the rebelling state’s representation in Congress. Also, all free men are given the right to vote under the fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution The Beloved novel also had a theme entitled slavery. Slavery is described by the novel’s author as commonplace. This means that the people who have slaves are considered normal people. The people during this time period accept that slavery is an institution and its philosophy and mindset affects the lives of many people in the slave –prevalent parts of the United States. Consequently, slavery had its advantages and disadvantages. There are also good owners of slaves as well as abusive owners of slaves. Beloved speaks of Garners. They are the owners of the slaves like Sethe. They were very kind to the African American slaves. In return, the slaves like Sethe and Paul D. , another slave, respected the Garners. This happy cooperation between the Garners and the slaves came to an abrupt end when the Garners died. This novel describes the years before the Civil War and the years after it. Morrison’s lyrical narrative coherently weaves together the supernatural and the tangible giving a literary masterpiece that pours out a dazzling achievement resulting to a spellbinding reading activity . They were replaced by the cruel leadership of the Garner replacement. The replacement was a man known only as school teacher. Paul D later stated that their happy home would only last as long as the Garners were alive. This was definitely true. Paul D. further reiterated that their happy home under the Garners would be shattered upon his death. The novel also dictates that the Garners are for against the practice of slavery. However, the novel identifies the slaves as just simple playthings or workers who were manipulated by the Garners to feed their fantasies and wants with the slaves as instruments. In a simple to read manner, Beloved author Morrison wants to paint a picture in the minds of the Beloved readers how big the problem of slavery is. Morrison also indirectly gives clues as to how widespread and evil the slave trade was during those fateful time periods. The author, Morrison, also emphasizes that there are some ways to eradicate slavery. In the Bodwin home, there is a statue of an African American child. The statue has on it an inscription that reads â€Å"At Yo Service†.

Opinions on Referral Guidelines from Audiology to ENT

Opinions on Referral Guidelines from Audiology to ENT

Soliloquy Term Paper: Hamlet’s Soliloquies -- GCSE English Literature

Hamlet’s Soliloquies      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reading Shakespeare’s Hamlet, it seems that at every other turn in the narrative the prince is alone and uttering another soliloquy. What is the nature of his various soliloquies? How many are there? What are their contexts? This essay will answer these questions and more. John Russell Brown in â€Å"Soliloquies and Other Wordplay Let the Audience Share Some of Hamlet’s Thoughts† explains that soliloquies are but one form of wordplay Hamlet uses: By any reckoning Hamlet is one of the most complex of Shakespeare’s characters, and a series of soliloquies is only one of the means which encourage the audience to enter imaginatively into his very personal and frightening predicament. The play’s narrative is handled so that a prolonged two-way chase is sustained between him and the king, during which the audience knows more than either one of them and so thinks ahead and anticipates events. In interplay with Rosencrantz, Guildenstern and Polonius, and perhaps with Claudius, Gertrude and Ophelia, Hamlet has asides to draw attention to what dialogue cannot express. (55-56) The first soliloquy, or â€Å"act of talking to oneself, whether silently or aloud† (Abrams 289), occurs when the hero is left alone after the royal social gathering in the room of state in the castle of Elsinore. He is dejected by the â€Å"o’erhasty marriage† of his mother to his uncle less than two months after the funeral of Hamlet’s father (Gordon 128). His first soliloquy emphasizes the frailty of women – an obvious reference to his mother’s hasty and incestuous marriage to her husband’s brother:    O, that this too too solid flesh would melt   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Thaw and resolve itself into a dew!   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Or that the Everlasting had not... ...es: An Impulsive but Earnest Young Aristocrat.† Readings on Hamlet. Ed. Don Nardo. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1999. Rpt. from The Masks of Hamlet. Newark, NJ: Univ. of Delaware P., 1992.    Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1995. http://www.chemicool.com/Shakespeare/hamlet/full.html    West, Rebecca. â€Å"A Court and World Infected by the Disease of Corruption.† Readings on Hamlet. Ed. Don Nardo. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1999. Rpt. from The Court and the Castle. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1957.    Wright, Louis B. and Virginia A. LaMar. â€Å"Hamlet: A Man Who Thinks Before He Acts.† Readings on Hamlet. Ed. Don Nardo. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1999. Rpt. from The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. Ed. Louis B. Wright and Virginia A. LaMar. N. p.: Pocket Books, 1958.

Personal Transportation vs Public Transportation :: Pollution Environment Argumentative Papers

Personal Transportation vs Public Transportation On my plane trip to the Philippines I had expected Manila to be a beautiful island with nature trails, tropical flowers, white sand and palm trees overflowing with coconuts outlining the border of the beaches. I was taken by surprise when I stepped out of the airport to find enormous skyscrapers; cars backed up bumper to bumper for miles in every direction that I turned my head for as far as I could see and a distinguishable stench of unclean air. My skin felt violated just standing there on the edge of the sidewalk. It felt as if my skin was being penetrated by miniscule pollutant dust particles. The city dwellers rushed around with handkerchiefs pressed against their faces to prevent the harmful chemicals from reaching their lungs. The traffic was so awful that if your license plate ended with an odd number you could only drive on Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays, and Sundays. If your license plate ended with an even number you could only drive on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. It was mind-boggling. It was like any other large city I had been to, only, more congested and more polluted. Who would’ve thought? This isn’t a single sad tale about an island out in the Pacific Ocean. The truth is the way the population is growing and places are expanding traffic is also greatly increasing. For example, a recent report from the U.S. Department of Transportation in Hosansky’s article on Traffic Congestion estimated that, â€Å"in 1994 governments at the federal, state, and local levels spent $124.5 billion on the nations transportation system. That figure has certainly risen sharply since 1998, when Congress passed the 6-year $217.9 billion Transportation Equity Act†(par.22). In just four years America has spent $93.4 billion dollars to build and repair roads. Citizens in agreement with constructing more roads do not realize that in five years the new roads will be just as congested and land will be even more scarce for further construction. Another negative aspect of constructing new roads is that, once new roads are built, more shopping centers, surplus ho using, food chains, and other sprawling suburbs pop up. These all contribute to more cars, which results in more traffic congestion.

Agriculture in the Caribbean

TABLE OF CONTENTS ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN THE CARIBBEAN Foreign exchange Contribution to GDP/GNP Food security Employment Environmental management CONSTRAINTS AFFECTING CARIBBEAN AGRICULTURE Climate Topography Appropriate Technology Rural Infrastructure Land Tenure and Fragmentation Credit Facilities Marketing Facilities Extension Services Praedial Larceny CLASSIFICATION OF CARIBBEAN FARMS Distinguishing Features of Farmers (According to Size) Large Farms Medium Sized Farms Small Farms Distinguishing Features of Farms (According to Produce) Crops Farm Livestock Monoculture/Mono-cropping Mixed Cropping Mixed Farming Organic Farming Agro-Forestry Integrated Farm INSTITUTIONS WHICH SUPPORT LOCAL AND REGIONAL AGRICULTURAL Rural Agricultural Development Authority (RADA) Bodles Research Station: Jamaica Livestoc Association (J. L. A. ) Jamaica Agricultural Society (J. A. S. ): Scientific Research Council (SRC Sugar Industry Research Institute (SIRI) Caribbean Community Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI ) Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute (CFNI) University of the West Indies (UWI) College of Agriculture, Science and Education (CASE) Inter-American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture (IICA) Food and Agriculture Organization (F AO) Organization of American States (OAS) Inter-American Development Bank (I. D. B. ) The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) Caribbean Basin Initiative (C. B. I) United States Agency for International Development (USAID) European Union (EU) INTRODUCTION TO SOIL SCIENCE Functions of Soil in our Environment Soil Formation Weathering Soil formation factors Soil Profile Physical Properties of soils Soil texture Soil Structure Porosity BULK DENSITY SOIL COLOUR SOIL WATER Importance of soil Organic Matter Chemical Properties of the soil Soil pH Plant nutrients HOW THE SOIL HOLD PLANT NUTRIENTS? MANAGING SOIL FERTILITY FERTILIZERS Advantages of organic fertilizers Disadvantages of organic fertilizers Inorganic fertilizers Fertilizer grade Advantages of inorganic fertilizers Disadvantages of inorganic fertilizers Practical activity Identifying types of fertilizers Methods of applying fertilizer Importance of plant sexual reproduction in agriculture The flower Pollination Types of pollinations Self pollination Cross pollination Fertilizatio ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN THE CARIBBEAN Foreign exchange The agriculture sector earns foreign exchange by exporting traditional and non-traditional products. In addition to earning foreign exchange, the agriculture sector may also produce food and raw material for local consumption; this reduces the need to import similar products, resulting in the saving of foreign exchange. The foreign exchange earned and saved is used to purchase other goods and services which the country needs/want but does not produce. Imported products must be purchased using foreign exchange. In addition to trading, foreign exchange is also used to repay international debt. Contribution to GDP/GNP GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT – GDP GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT – GNP GDP and GNP are means of measuring the national income of a country. The GDP measures the value of goods and services produced locally, in a given period. The GNP is determined by adding the value of goods and services produced in a country (GDP) and also what is earned abroad and returned to the country, in a given period. GDP = AGRICULTURE + TOURISM + MINING + MANUFACTURING etc. GNP = AGRICULTURE + TOURISM + MINING + MANUFACTURING etc. + EARNINGS FROM ABROAD Agriculture contributes to the overall wealth of a country by contributing to GNP and GDP. As the contribution from agriculture and other sectors increases the wealthier the country becomes. This means more funding will be available to improve infrastructure and services such as roads, education and health. The Jamaican agriculture sector contributes about seven percent to GDP, only tourism contributes more. Food security Food security is concerned with the availability of adequate supply of food and access to the food by all the citizens of a country. Food security exists when all people at all times have physical and economic access to ufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences. Food security can be affected by; †¢ Availability or access to arable lands for agriculture †¢ Technology used †¢ Climatic conditions †¢ Conflicts †¢ Ability to import food †¢ Poverty FOOD SECURITY = ADEQUATE FOOD SUPPLY + ACCESS TO FOO D BY ALL Employment Agriculture is a major source of employment in the rural areas of most Caribbean countries. Therefore, agriculture is the primary means of promoting rural development and reducing rural to urban migration and its consequence urban decay. Employment in agriculture ranges from unskilled workers to highly trained professionals such as an agronomist or an agricultural engineer. Also, agriculture offers direct employment for example a broiler farm [pic] or an extension officer. There is also indirect employment in down streams. Down streams industries, such as food processing, generally use agricultural products as raw materials to produce value added products or manufacture new products. Supermarkets, financial institutions and businesses benefit from the earnings of individuals involved in agriculture. Environmental management Through agricultural activities man interacts with the environment. The effects of this interaction may be positive or negative. Since agriculture depends on the natural resources, the goal of all persons who benefit directly and in directly from agriculture should be to promote the use of agricultural practices that are environmentally friendly. CONSTRAINTS AFFECTING CARIBBEAN AGRICULTURE Climate The major areas of consideration are: temperature and rainfall. The climate of the Caribbean is the tropical marine climate; therefore it is warm and moist. The combination of warmth and moisture create ideal conditions for many pests and diseases that affect both crops and livestock. Also, the high temperatures make it more difficult to successfully rear some breeds of livestock in the Caribbean, especially those which originate in temperate areas such as Europe. Topography Topography refers to the relief or the shape of the land. The topography of most Caribbean islands is hilly in the interior with most of the flat land near the coast. The limited flat land is generally used for housing and settlements, manufacturing industries and plantation type agriculture e. g. sugar cane. Steep slopes affect farming by: †¢ Limiting access to farm plots †¢ Restrict the use of farm machines †¢ Increase the risk of soil erosion Appropriate Technology Technology: the use of tools, machinery and knowledge and to complete tasks. Increasing production in agriculture is linked to the use of modern technology e. g. tractors, hybrid seeds, and efficient irrigation systems. Appropriate technology refers to the use of tools, machinery and knowledge which is suited for local conditions or a specific area or condition. Technology should be appropriate to the economic status of the farmer, farm size, climate and level of education etc. Appropriateness technology for small farmers can be judged using the characteristics shown below; †¢ Simple †¢ Low maintenance †¢ Locally made †¢ Access to spare parts †¢ Easy to operate †¢ Affordable †¢ Small/compact [pic] [pic] Rural Infrastructure The farm family needs to have access to basic amenities for both agricultural and domestic activities. If rural areas are not provided with some of the basic infrastructural needs, farmers will not be very productive; also the business of farming may become less attractive or no longer feasible to the farm family. Some of the basic infrastructure includes: †¢ Electricity Water supply †¢ Proper roads †¢ Telephone †¢ Health care †¢ Schools Land Tenure and Fragmentation Land tenure speaks to the ownership of land. Most small farmers do not own their own land or own very small fragmented plots usually in hilly areas. When farmers do not own their own land, they are not motivated to develop the land or put permanent structures on the land. Land fragmentation occurs as land is divided among family members from generation to generation. The land is divided into numerous plots and not all the plots are generally used for agricultural production but for other purposed such as housing. Credit Facilities As with other types of businesses it is often very necessary to borrow money from lending institutions to start, expand or acquire assts for an agricultural enterprise. Because farming is considered to be a high risk business, institutions are not very willing to lend money for agriculture. Very often farmers complain that the cost of borrowing money (interest rate) is too high; while the price of the products they produce is relatively low. Some farmers will experience difficulty accessing loans because they lack suitable collateral such as land. Collateral is material of value used to cover the cost of the loan in the even that the borrower is unable to pay. Marketing Facilities Marketing involves bringing the producer and the consumer together. Marketing also includes transporting, pricing, packaging, storage and advertising. Farmers in Jamaica experience difficulty in selling their produce due to: †¢ A lack of properly organized systems to bring buyers and sellers together i. e. buyers are not aware of what farmers are producing and farmers are not fully aware of the needs of buyers. †¢ Competition from imported agricultural products Extension Services Although there is an increasing number of professionals now operating farming enterprises, most Jamaican farmers are relatively old and have only basic education (grade 9). Therefore there is need to give these farmers constant and individual help to improve their agricultural knowledge. Extension officers provide a vital link between the farmer and the researcher that develop modern farming technology and solutions for on the farm problems. The economic constraints being experienced in Jamaica have resulted in the reduction in the size of the extension service. Praedial Larceny Nothing is more discouraging to a farmer than the theft of his produce. CLASSIFICATION OF CARIBBEAN FARMS Farms are classified according to size and what they produce. Distinguishing Features of Farmers (According to Size) Large Farms Large farms occupy more than 25 hectares, mainly produce one crop or type of livestock and are geared for export. These farms are operated and managed by individuals, co- operations or government and in some cases absentee owners. They employ a skilled labour force as well as semi-skilled and unskilled workers. They farms tend to be highly mechanized or in some cases little mechanization is used but instead large numbers of workers. The profits from these farms in the case of foreign owners are repatriated. Medium Sized Farms The size of these farms range anywhere from 2. 5 to 25 hectares. They are owned and operated by the farmer and usually requires hired labour. These farms usually produce a variety of crops or livestock or both crops and livestock for domestic use. In recent time medium sized farms are accessing export markets. Small Farms These farms are less than 0. 5 hectares to a maximum of 2. hectares. They are owned and operated by the farmer and family labour is used. They produce for local markets and use simple hand tools e. g. hoe, fork, and cutlass. Distinguishing Features of Farms (According to Produce) Crops Farm These farms are of all sizes and produce a variety of crops for the local and possibly export market. Some mechanization is involved especially in land preparation and pest and disease control. The farmer usually owns the land and some labour is hired. [pic] Livestock These farms are also of all sizes depending on the type of enterprise e. . fish, cattle, rabbits and goats. It is owned and operated by an individual, group or government and production is mainly for the domestic market e. g. pork, beef, fish are all used in Jamaica. Monoculture/Mono-cropping In a mono-cropping system, the farmer concentrates on growing only one major crop e. g. sugarcane on a plot of land or in a particular area for an extended period of time. Relatively few of these farms are found in the region. Absentee owners appoint managers to run the farms. In general, these farms are productive but the profits are exported. In cases where the farms are locally owned the profits remain in the country and help with its development. On these farms soil and crop management are uniform, since they are dealing with one crop. This repeating of crop and soil management practices can have negative effects such as: †¢ Grater opportunity of spreading pests and diseases, which may destroy the entire crop. †¢ Continuous ploughing with heavy equipment can destroy soil structure †¢ Cultural practices such as burning of sugar cane can destroy soil structure and beneficial soil organisms. Mixed Cropping In mixed cropping the farmer depends on several plots for his income. Maximum use is made of land space and it is easier to check the spread of pest and diseases. In mixed cropping: †¢ Crops may be grown on the same farm but on different plots. [pic] †¢ Crops may be intercropped on the same plot. [pic] Situation: a farmer often grows one main crop e. g. sugar cane but also cultivates other (cash crops), which he uses to provide his weekly supply of food and to help pay his bills by selling the surplus produce. Such a situation is considered mixed cropping since he has other crops on which he can depend. Mixed Farming Involves the growing of crops and the rearing of animals on the same farm. They can be of and size but usually medium to large and production is basically for a local market, some produce may be exported. The farms are owned and operated by individuals, groups or government. Advantages: o Maximum use is made of land space. o Farms have more than one source of income. o It is easier to check the spread of pests and diseases. Disadvantages †¢ A higher level of management is required. †¢ There is a need to find market for different types of produce. †¢ Animals can damage crops if the y are not properly enclosed or tied. Organic Farming Organic farming is the use of agricultural systems to produce food and fiber without the use of artificial pesticides, fertilizer and genetically modified plants. Crop rotation and the building of biodiversity are very important. Pesticides used come from plants and are used as a last resort and their effects are short lived. Soil amendments come from renewable resources such as farmyard manure and composts. The strategy is to build up healthy soils through cover crops, composts and organically based amendments to build up healthy soils. These plants are better able to resist pest and diseases. Weeds are controlled through cover crops, mulching, flame weeding and crop rotation. When pests and diseases get out of control a variety of strategies are used for their control e. g. insect predators, mating disruption, traps, barriers and bio-chemicals. Agro-Forestry Agro-forestry is an integrated land use system. It refers to land –use systems in which trees are grown on the same land as agricultural crops and/or animals in a spatial arrangement or in a time sequence. Some examples are coconuts under-planted with pasture, apiculture with tree systems and aquaculture under mangroves. Agro-forestry systems resemble the natural ecosystems. The general aim of agro-forestry is to supply and increase a sustainable output of the basic necessities including cash. Agro-forestry is important because the following reasons. †¢ Environmental deterioration – due to the actions of man, natural disasters and volcanic action lead to deforestation. †¢ High rates of oxidation of organic matter due to high temperatures as well as excessive evaporation of moisture. †¢ Soil erosion. †¢ Population pressure for land for a variety of purposes such as housing. †¢ Need for fuel wood. Integrated Farm Farms are said to be integrated when the waste products from one enterprise is used as an in put in another production enterprise e. g. poultry waste can be used in fish farming and cattle rearing. Integrated farms attempt to eliminate the accumulation of agricultural waste by further utilization in production. Sugarcane Feed for ruminants (cattle) Waste Garden (compost) Garden excess and waste Feed ruminants INSTITUTIONS WHICH SUPPORT LOCAL AND REGIONAL AGRICULTURAL For a country’s agricultural sector to maximize its potential and contribute to a nation’s development; numerous organizations and institutions must play an integral role. These institutions may be government or private, local based, regional or international. The roles played by these institutions may encompass: Education ? Research ? Technical assistance ? Poverty reduction ? Rural development These organizations may form a cornerstone for development and ensure sustainable development, food security, poverty reduction, and prosperity. Some institutions have specific roles e. g. CFNI – nutrition. While some are broad based dealing with a wide cross section of development e. g. CDB. Rural Agricultural Development Authority (RADA) The objectives of RADA include: ? To provide technical extension assistance primarily to farmers in rural Jamaica in an effort to increase production and productivity. ? To train and develop extension personnel at all levels through in-service training programmes, geared towards improving their efficiency. ? To administer farmer training programmes and workshops thereby rendering farmers more knowledgeable and capable. ? To catalyze agricultural credit and input for small farmers. ? To aid in organization of marketing chains beneficial to both farmers and consumers. To cooperate with agencies involved in the development of rural infrastructure with a view to improving the quality of life in rural communities. ? To develop and operate service centres at strategic locations around the island thus bringing the service closer to farmers. ? To be the implementing agency for selected projects that impact on farmers and the biological environment. E. g. watershed development projects and fa rmer registration. ? To provide a free flow of information from policy makers and research organizations to farmers and from farmers upwards to these same persons. Bodles Research Station: Government funded research institution that carries out research in both crop production and animal husbandry to develop new and improved methods of farming, pest and disease control. They also seek to develop new plant and animal breeds which are suitable for local conditions. Jamaica Livestock Association (J. L. A. ): The J. L. A. is concerned with the development of the Jamaica livestock sector. It is a public company offering shares therefore it is concerned with the welfare of share holders. They provide agricultural support services for improving development of the industry such as quality input and technology development and implementation. Jamaica Agricultural Society (J. A. S. ): The JAS represent the interests of all farmers lobbying for agricultural friendly policies for agricultural sustainability and development. They also promote and support agricultural and industrial shows as well as operating a supply subsidiary (JLA farm stores), providing agricultural inputs at affordable costs to farmers. Scientific Research Council (SRC): They undertake research into new and improved technologies in agriculture. They are currently spearheading efforts to implement tissue culture and hydroponics in Jamaica. Sugar Industry Research Institute (SIRI) SIRI main function is to research and develop methods to improve agriculture technology as it relates to sugar cane production. They aim to improve efficiency in all areas of sugar cane production. Their main functions are: †¢ The development of new varieties of sugar cane which are high yielding, drought resistant, pest and disease resistant. †¢ The development of machinery and equipment suitable for Jamaican conditions. †¢ Provide technical assistance in irrigation, drainage and water management. Develop ideal fertilizer preparations based on the nutritional requirement of a crop. †¢ Promote the safe and efficient use of agro chemicals e. g. herbicides and insecticides. †¢ To study, monitor and provide technical advice in control and eradication of pests and diseases. CARICOM – Caribbean Community (Established by th e treaty of Chaguarnas May 1, 1973) Aim is to enhance regional trade, develop common policies, and act as a negotiating body among member states. So as to promote economic, social, cultural and political development through integration. Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) Provides loans for development and establishment of agricultural industries and farms e. g. irrigation, training, fisheries, as well as infrastructural development e. g. roads, water supply. Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI ) †¢ Provide for and conduct research into farming methods, pest and disease control, plant and animal breeding, technology for long term development. †¢ Coordinate and integrate research efforts in member states. †¢ Undertake training of farmers and agricultural personnel. †¢ Improve the utilization of modern technology to boost agricultural production. Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute (CFNI) †¢ Offers technical support for reducing malnutrition †¢ Promote proper nutrition education and provide educational material to this end. †¢ Develop nutrition policies †¢ To collaborate with governments to improve food security. †¢ To improve nutritional aspects of health services. University of the West Indies (UWI) †¢ Provide degree training in agriculture and related fields †¢ Conduct agricultural research for improving farming methods and pest and disease control. College of Agriculture, Science and Education (CASE) Offers training in agriculture. Inter-American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture (IICA) A specialized agency of the O. A. S. their aim is to promote agricultural development in a sustainable manner working with governments and Ministries of Agriculture. Their focus is geared toward †¢ Rural development and well-being. †¢ Diversification of agricultural production. †¢ Value-added production (agro-processing). †¢ Improving the region’s position in international trade. †¢ Research and development Food and Agriculture Organization (F AO) An organized branch of the United Nations which aims to †¢ Promote agricultural development. Pursue food security and improve nutrition. †¢ Develop infrastructure in rural areas. †¢ Provide information and technical assistance on a project basis to farmers. †¢ Provide a neutral platform for countries to meet and discuss issues and advice them on policy making. †¢ Coordinate government efforts at food security and improved nutrition. Organization of American States (OAS) Includes Thirty four (34) member states from the Americas. Provides technical assistance to countries and aims to improve health care and public administration. Inter-American Development Bank (I. D. B. ) The oldest and largest regional institution of multilateral development. The aim is to accelerate economic and social development in Latin American and Caribbean countries. Operations cover the entire spectrum of infrastructure, energy, transportation and urban development. Current lending priorities: poverty reduction, social equity and modernization. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) The lead organization in delivering Canada’s official development assistance programme. Assistance is provided in the form of goods and services, transfer of knowledge, skills and financial contributions. Areas of concentration include: – basic human needs – infrastructure – private sector development – women in development – human rights – environmental protection. These objectives are achieved by working with both the private sectors and governments of respective countries. Caribbean Basin Initiative (C. B. I) Enacted as Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act by United States. Products from beneficiary countries may be eligible for duty-free treatment in the U. S. A. United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Undertakes numerous projects aimed at improving the quality of life of citizens in developing countries. They also aim to expand democracy and free market activities ultimately leading to economic growth. European Union (EU) The EU provides grants and loans for a wide range of development projects and environmental protection initiatives in developing countries. They also provide technical assistance for many of these projects. INTRODUCTION TO SOIL SCIENCE Functions of Soil in our Environment. ? Habitat for organisms; Microbes, earth worms, rodents ? Medium for plant growth; Provide essential minerals and water. ? Important component in the water cycle ; storages in pores and evaporation ? Engineering medium; construction of roads and building etc. Soil Formation Soil Composition [pic] Soil formation is slow process. In the best conditions 1mm of soil may be form in a year. However, under poor condition it may take thousands of years for the same quantity of soil to form. Although soil is a renewable resource, in many areas soil is being lost at a much faster rate than it can be produced. SUMMARY OF SOIL FORMATION PROCESSES [pic]Transformation – weathering and decomposition [pic]Translocation – movement of soil materials up or down the soil profile [pic]Addition – rainfall, OM, deposited rock materials pic]Losses – erosion, washing out of soil material in the ground water(leaching) Weathering This is the physical and chemical breakdown of rocks and the mineral found in rocks. i) Physical weathering or disintegration involves the break up rocks into smaller fragments. Physical weathering is often referred to as mechanical weathering, since it involve the action of forces. Agents of physical weathering or disintegration: ? Temperature changes: – Contraction and expansion weaken the structure of the rocks. ? Running water ? Plants: – the roots of plants can grow between rock spaces and break up the rocks as they grow and become larger. Humans and animals The diagram shows the result of physical weathering; a single rock disintegrated into many fragments [pic] ii) Chemical weathering involve changing the chemical composition of rock s/ the minerals in rock via chemical reactions. Primary minerals such as quartz Sio2 are changed into changed into secondary mineral such as aluminium silicates (clay mineral). Chemical weathering is accelerated by the physical disintegration of rocks, which increases the surface of rocks, causing the rate of chemical reactions to increase. In addition, water and warmth are important factors which, influencing the rate of chemical weathering. Water is a universal solvent in which reactions can take place while, as temperature increases the rate of reactions increases. EXAMPLES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING Carbonation and solution: Water combines with Carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid. Examples: (1) H2O + CO2 ———— H2CO3 + CaCO3 ———Ca(HCO3)2 (2) CaCo3 + H2CO3 ——- Ca2+ + 2HCO3- Hydration: – Water combine with rock minerals causing a chemical change in the mineral structure. Examples: anhydride (CaSO4) + Water (H2O) = Gypsum (CaSO4-H2O) 2Fe2O3 + 3H2O ——- 2Fe2O3. 3H2O Hematite limonite Hydrolysis: The water molecule splits in to H+ and OH-and reacts with minerals CaSiO 3 + 2H2O ——– HSiO3 + Ca(OH)2 Calcium silicates silicic acid calcium hydroxide Oxidation: Oxygen combines with mineral elements to form oxides. Example: a rusting sign post. Soil formation factors These are environmental factors, which determines the type of soils that are formed i. soil colour, profile depth, chemical features and biotic characteristics. i) Parent material: Parent material refers to the type of rock material from which soil forms. It includes bedrock, transported (by water, wind or gravity) and deposited materials originated from rocks. Alluvial – transported by water Colluvial – dislodged and deposited by gravity *** Soil is not necessarily formed from the underlining bed rock *** The parent material contributes to the physi cal and chemical properties of the soil, such as texture, pH, mineral content. |ROCKS CHRACTERISTICS | | | | |Igneous rocks |Rocks formed from cooled molten material | | |Volcanic rocks may acid or basic | | |Granite is an example of igneous rocks | | | | |Sedimentary rocks |The most abundant rock types | | |Formed from deposited materials included rock fragments | | |Usually layered | | |Limestone and sand stone are examples | | | | |Metamorphic rocks |Formed from sedimentary rock when these rocks are exposed to great heat and | | |pressure. | | |Example limestone changed to marble | PARENT MATERIAL |SOIL PROPERTIES | | | | |SOFT LIMESTONE |DARK IN CLOUR | | |SHALLOW | | |UNDERLAID WITH MARL | | | | |HARD LIMESTONE |SOIL VARY IN COLOUR FROM BROWN TO RED, INCLUDING BAUXITIC SOILS | | | | |SHALES |FREE DRAIINING | | RICH IN POTASH | | |PRONE TO SLIPPING AND EROSION | | | | |PURPLE CONGLOMORATES |OCCUR MAINLY ON SLOPES | | |SUSCEPTABLE TO EROSION | | |LOW WATER HOLDING CAPA CITY | | | | |OTHER CONGLOMORATES |ACID CLAYS | | |LOW FERTLITY | | | | |GRANITE AND POPHYRY |GRAVELLY SOIL | | |SHALLOW | | |ACIDIC | | |LIGHT TEXTURE | | |EASELY ERODED | ii) Climate: Agents of climate such as temperature, moisture (rainfall) and wind contributes to rock disintegration and chemical weathering and consequently the type soil that is formed. Warm temperature, as is the case in the tropics, increase the rate of weathering. The amount of moisture present will also affect the rate of soil formation, by influencing the rate of weathering and decomposition. iii) Topography: the topography is the shape or contour of the land surface. Soils formed on slopes then to be thinner than those that are formed on gently sloping lands. Low lying areas, which are poorly drained, have different chemical properties indicated by a grey colour down the soil profile. [pic] iv) Time: the longer the soil formation processes are in action the soil horizons would be more developed and also the soil would be more weathered. v) Biotic factors (vegetation and animals): Soil animals such as earthworms influence soil development by mixing soil components and aerate soils as they burrow through the soil. The mixing action enhances the rate of chemical and physical change in the soil. Fungi and bacteria decompose organic matter. The leaves and roots of plants add organic matter to the soil and contribute to the weathering of rocks. Soil Profile The soil profile is a vertical section of view of a soil showing the horizons or layer. [pic] Soil Profile OSuperficial surface layer consist mainly of plant remains such as fallen and other partially decomposed organic materials ATop soil – divided into two layers on the basis of soil colour ? The upper layer is darker due to a higher concentration of organic matter ? Usually there is an abundance of soil organisms and plant roots ? The top soil generally has a loose structure ? Usually the most fertile layer E BSubsoil- colour of this layer is red to orange due to the accumulation of mineral called oxides ? Proportion of gravel may begin to increase ? Clay content increases caused by the downward washing and accumulation of clay. ? The tap roots of some plants may be visible ? The soil is more compact CWeathered rock/Parent material – contain gravel or generally coarse material D/RBed Rock – Solid rock or parent materials Importance understanding the Soil Profile †¢ Soil horizons help to determine the soil type. †¢ Most plant nutrients are present in the top soil, which can be used to determine the soil fertility. †¢ Subsoil compactness will give a hint to the drainage of the soil. Type of bedrock and parent material will influence chemical and physical soil properties. Physical Properties of soils Soil texture The texture of a soil is determined by the ratio of sand, silt and clay particles present in the soil. The percentage of sand, silt and clay soils can b e used to classify soils into three main texture classes; [pic]Sandy soils —— Coarse [pic]Loamy soil —— Moderately coarse, medium to moderately fine †¢ Clay Soils ——- Fine NOTE – IN THE FIELD THERE ARE MANY VARATION TO THESE TEXTURE CLASSES. THE SOIL TEXTURE TRIANGLE BELOW SHOWS THE MAJOR SOIL TYPES. [pic] In the field soil texture can be determined by the feel method i. e. feeling the soil between the finger. Hence, soil texture can be simply defined as the feel of the soil between the fingers. Soil texture is very difficult to change in the field but on a small scale adding enough of another soil type and mixing thoroughly can modify the texture of one soil type. Soil Particles and size Gravel200 – 20 mm Fine gravel20 – 2 mm Coarsesand2 – 0. 2 mm Fine sand0. 2 – 0. 02 mm Silt0. 02 – 0. 002 mm Clayless than 0. 002 PROPERTIES OF SOIL S AND SOIL PARTICLES Clay ? Clay Particles stick together ? Particles are closely packed ? Highest percentage of micro pores ? Low porosity ? Good for fish ponds and growing rice ? High water holding capacity ? Moderated to high CEC ? Low drainage ? Moderate to high shrinkage and swelling Easily compacted ? Resist wind erosion ? Resist change in soil pH ? Retards leaching ? Rich in nutrients ? Poor structure ? Have negative electric charge (to attract Positively charged nutrients) Sand ? Particles do not stick together ? Part icles can be seen with the naked eye. ? Particles loosely arranged ? Large pore spaces ? Resist compaction ? Easily tilled soon after wetting ? OM decomposed rapidly ? Generally coarse ? Well aerated ? Well drained ? pH is easily changed ? Poor water holding ability ? High rate of leaching ? Low nutrient content Silt ? Particles are smooth and powdery ? Intermediate between clay and sand ? Particles feel smooth but not sticky ? Have and electric charge ? Easily compacted ? Easily blown by wind erosion LOAMS Soils classified as loams tend to demonstrate the properties of the three particles in an almost equal proportion. In the field, there are different types of loams e. g. clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay loam and sandy loam. Identifying Texture by Feel Feel test – Rub some moist soil between your fingers. †¢ Sand feels gritty. †¢ Silt feels smooth. †¢ Clays feel sticky. Ball squeeze test – Squeeze a moistened ball of soil in your hand. †¢ Coarse textures (sand or sandy loam) soils break with slight pressure. Sandy loams and silt loams stay together but change shape easily. †¢ Fine textured (clayey or clayey loam) soils resist breaking. Ribbon test – Squeeze a moistened ball of soil out between your thumb and fingers. †¢ Sandy soils will not ribbon. †¢ Loam, silt, silty clay loam or clay loam soil ribbons l ess than 1 inch. †¢ Sandy clay loam, silty clay loam or clay loam ribbons 1 to 2 inches. †¢ Sandy clay, silty clay, or clay soil ribbons more than 2 inches. A soil with as low as 20 percent clay, may behave as a heavy clayey soil. A soil needs 45 percent to over 60 percent sand to behave as a sandy soil. [pic] Activity ; Determine the texture of soil samples Soil characteristics |CLAY SOILS |SANDY SOILS |LOAMS | |Soil Conditions when dry | | | | |Do not from stable aggregates | |^ | | |Easily broken | |^ |^ | |Moderately easily broken | | |^ | |Hard and stable |^ | | | |   | | | | |Soil conditions when wet | | | | |Very stable aggregates |^ | | | |Moderately stable | | |^ | |Very unstable aggregates | |^ | | |   | | | | |Ability to form ribbons | | | | |Do not form ribbons | |^ | | |broken appearance of ribbons | | |^ | |Thin ribbons, will brake | |^ | |Very long & flexible ribbons |^ | | | Soil Structure Soil structure describes the arrangement of individual soil part icle. Individual soil particles come together to form aggregates, which may appear, in a number of shapes; [pic]Granular and crumb – aggregates are loosely arranged, usually found at the soil surface especially those having high organic matter content, it is considered to be the ideal structure soil structure. [pic] [pic]Plate like – generally found in the subsoil can be produced by soil compaction; this type of structure may reduce air, water movement and also hinder the penetration of roots. [pic] Blocky – this type of structure is usually seen in the Subsoil – associated with clay soils [pic] [pic]Prism like or columnar – found in the subsoil of clays [pic] [pic]Structure less soil has single grains or massive structures. [pic] ACTIVITY: Use a pitch fork to remove small sections of top soil and subsoil, identify the types of soil structure observed. Porosity Pores are spaces occurring naturally between soil particle and soil aggregates and direc tly depends on the soil structure. Porosity measures the amount of pore spaces in a soil sample. Pore spaces are important for the growth of plant roots and the movement of soil water and air. Based on size there are two types of pores observed in soils macro-pores and micro-pores. Macro-pores allow water and air to move through the soil at a faster rate, while micro-pores holds water more tightly therefore they act as long term storage of water. [pic] | | | |Pore spaces |Features | | | | |Low Porosity |Water logging, inadequate oxygen in the soil, hinder root penetration, micro-pores | | |dominates. | | | |Improve porosity |Add organic matter (compost) | | | | |Reduce porosity |Soil compaction | WHAT IS SOIL BULK DENSITY? This is the mass per unit volume of a dry soil sample. The volume includes the soil particles and pores spaces. Soils that are more compact usually have a higher bulk density that is having more soil particles and less pore spaces. REMINDERS Low porosity = higher bulk density Compact soils = low porosity = high bulk density* Clay soil = generally low porosity Sandy soils = higher porosity [pic] Activity: list the characteristics of soil with poor soil structure | | |How does soil structure influence plant growth? | SOIL COLOUR The colour of the soil gives clues to the physical and chemical properties of the soil. The soils can be used make a quick evaluation of soils in the field. Soils colours are mainly determine by oxides of metals and organic matter. Soils display a wide range colour for example; †¢ Reds †¢ Browns †¢ Yellows †¢ Black †¢ Green †¢ White Organic matter cause soils to be darker in colour, which may also hide the effect of oxides. Organic matter is associated with good soil structure as well as soil fertility. Iron oxides tend to produce soils that are yellow, brown or red. The colour will depend on the form iron oxide. Carbonates such as Calcite (CaCo3) give soils whitish colour. †¢ Bright soil colours are associated with well-drained soils and well aerated soils †¢ Grays and mixture bright colours and grays (mottled) indicates a poorly drained and poorly aerated soils †¢ When soil that are rich in iron oxides becomes water logged the iron is reduced form the ferrous to the ferric from which give the soil a grey colour |Condition | | |Subsurface soil colour | |Soils in anaerobic conditions, such as those in poorly | | |drained depressions, will normally have dull, grey |Water-logged soils, poor aeration | |B-horizons. Alternatively, aerobic soils on well-drained and |Dull grey (if in low rainfall soi ls 0-20 in) | |aerated slopes have bright reddish-brownish colours. | | |Well drained soils | | |Yellow, red-brown, black (if in forest soils) | | | | | |Poorly drained soils | | |Mottled grey (if in humid soils) | | | | SOIL WATER Water is essential for plant growth. Soil is capable of being a storehouse of water and becoming the main source of water for land plants. Soil water plays a significant role in several natural processes- evaporation, infiltration and drainage of water, diffusion of gases, conduction of heat, and movement of salts and nutrients are all dependent upon the amount of water present in soil. Plants meet their water requirement from water stored in soil. Soil moisture can be improved with aeration. Soil water is contained in soil pores Soil water contains dissolved substances for example nutrient elements and organic matter HOW DOES WATER MOVE UPWARD IN THE SOIL? Think about narrow tubes of different diameter placed vertically in beaker with water, as the diameter of the container decreases the height of the water in the tubes increases. The forces involved are called cohesion and adhesion. ? Cohesion attraction between water molecules ? Adhesion attraction between water and soil surface CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL WATER ? FIELD CAPACITY – water held in the soil after excess water has drained away ? CAPILARY WATER – water held by cohesion and adhesion [surface tension] ? GRAVITATIONAL WATER – water that drains under the influence of gravity especially after rain fall ? HYGROSCOPIC WATER – water that is held tightly around soil particles. This water is nit available to plants. Importance of soil Organic Matter ORGANIC MATTER (OM) = Decaying and decayed plant and animal remains †¢ Low percentage present in soil Colloidal in nature †¢ Have electric charge. †¢ Binds mineral particles to form stable aggregates. (improve soil structure) †¢ Humus is the final stage of decomposed material †¢ Responsible for the loose nature of productive soils. †¢ Increase water-holding ca pacity. †¢ Source of plant nutrients such as phosphorus and sulphur and major source of nitrogen. †¢ Supply food for soil organism. Chemical Properties of the soil Soil pH The term soil pH refers to the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a particular soil type. The soil pH or soil reaction is determined by the concentration of Hydrogen H+ and hydroxyl OH- in the soil. ? H+ higher than OH- soil acidic OH- higher than H+ soil alkaline soil In addition alkaline soils have more Ca, mg, K, and Na ions (base forming ions), while acid soil have more acid forming elements such as aluminium ions. ___________ Items & pH ________ Most acid soils 4. 0-6. 0 Lemon juice 2. 2-2. 4 Orange juice 3. 4-4. 0 Vinegar 4. 0-4. 5 Acid rain 3. 0-5. 0 Clean rain water 5. 5-5. 7 Fresh milk 6. 3-6. 6 Blood plasma 7. 0-7. 2 Mild soap solution 8. 5-10. 0 ____________________ The pH scale ranges from one to fourteen; a pH of 7 is neutral, above 7 acidity increases while below the neutral point alkalinity. | | |ACIDITY INCREASING | | |ALKALINITY | | | | | | | | |INCREASING | | | |1 |2 | |Nitrogen |Essential component of chlorophyll, promote growth especially leaves. | |Phosphorus |Important role in fruit and grain maturity, stimulates flowering, promote the development of | | |the root system. |Potassium |Carbohydrate formation and translocation, essential for the development of flowers, fruits | | |and seeds. | |Calcium |Occurs in the cell walls | |Sulphur |Formation of amino acid which forms protein | |Magnesium |Present in chlorophyll | |Micronutrients | | |Iron | |Sodium | | |Chlorine | | |Selenium | | |Manganese | | |Zinc | | |Copper | | |Molybdenum | | |Boron | | HOW THE SOIL HOLD PLANT NUTRIENTS? Cation exchange capacity (CEC) explains how the soil is able to hold cations such as Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, H+ and NH4+, which are in important for crop nutriti on. Clay and humus both have a net negative charge, so they give the soil the ability to attract cations. These ions will become attached to the soil complex (see diagram below). The CEC cation exchange value can be used in evaluating soil fertility. Soils with higher CEC are usually more fertile for example soil with high clay and or organic matter content. Anion such as sulphates, nitrates and phosphates are not attach to the soil particles therefore they are easily leached from the soil. HOW DOES CEC AFFECTS ABILITY OF THE SOIL TO BUFFER AGAINST pH CHANGES? [pic] MANAGING SOIL FERTILITY The soil is a very import resource in crop production. Therefore, it must be managed properly to ensure the best crop yield possible on a continuous basis. It is very important that we understand how the physical and chemical soil properties affect the fertility of soils FERTILIZERS Fertilizers are materials organic and inorganic which supply elements essential for the growth of plants Organic fertilizers Organic fertilizers are materials from animal waste and plant material which are used to supply plant nutrients. Examples of organic fertilizers; – Fresh animal manure – Sewage – Compost – Green manure Advantages of organic fertilizers †¢ Micro-organism breakdown organic, releasing nutrient slowly. Hence, nutrients are less likely to be wash out of the soil. †¢ Contains less nutrients per kg, therefore it has a low burn potential and less likely to pollute ground water and rivers. †¢ Contains natural growth factors, which are beneficial to crop plants. Disadvantages of organic fertilizers †¢ Nutrient content not precise depends on materials from which it is made †¢ Organic fertilizers have a low quantity of nutrient per kg it require relatively large quantity to be effective. This cause organic fertilizers to be bulky, making it more expensive to transport and difficult to apply. †¢ It may contain disease causing organism and/or weed seeds. Inorganic fertilizers These are inorganic salts containing elements required for plant growth manufactured from natural material or synthetic materials. Physical forms of fertilizers †¢ Salts †¢ Pellets †¢ Liquid Soluble forms of fertilizers †¢ Quick release – very soluble form †¢ Slow release – Fertilizer grade Commercial fertilizers are manufactured to contain a precise quantity. The is shown on the container by number which show the grade e. g. 14-28-14. What does 14 – 28 – 14 means? The fertilizer contains 14% N, 28% P and 14% k. A complete fertilizer contains N, P and K. Incomplete fertilizers supply one or two elements. Examples urea, triple super phosphates and murate of potash. Advantages of inorganic fertilizers †¢ The quantity of nutrient is known †¢ Concentrated source of nutrients †¢ Less bulky †¢ Nutrients are in a more available form, to be used by crops Disadvantages of inorganic fertilizers †¢ They have a high crop burn potential due to concentrated salts. †¢ Excessive use can easily pollute ground water and rivers †¢ Easily leached from the soil. †¢ Excessive use can cause soil to become saline [having too much salt] Practical activity Identifying types of fertilizers Methods of applying fertilizer †¢ Broad casting †¢ Placement -Circular banding – Row banding †¢ Foliar application †¢ Fertigation Importance of plant sexual reproduction in agriculture THINK OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF MANGOES THAT YOU HAVE SEEN OR EATEN. What cause this variation in plants? How does variation in crops (cultivars) benefits agriculture? The flower ? A specialized shoot consisting of reproductive organs ? Structures are arranged in whorls ? A complete flower has four whorls WhorlsOrgans a. Calyx – sepals b. Corolla- petals c. Stamen – filament and anther d. Pistil – Stigma, style & ovary One or more of the structures may be absent( |STRUCTURES |Type of flower | | Calyx |Corolla |Stamen |Pistil | | |( |( |( |- |Staminate | |( |( |- |( |Pistillate | |( |( |( |( |Hermaphrodite | ? Some plants have bisexual flowers only e. g. tomatoes, while others such as cantaloupe, have mal e and female flowers on the same plant. Plants such as some cultivars of papaya have male and female on the different plants. ? In addition to reproduction, the flowers of some plants are eaten (broccoli and cauliflower), while many are used for its aesthetic value (anthurium rose and chrysanthemum). Pollination ? Transfer of pollens which contains the male gamete to the stigma ? Pollination is necessary for fertilization ? Fertilization is necessary for the development of true fruits and viable seeds Types of pollinations Self pollination ? Transfer of pollen within a flower or different flowers on the same plant ? Only one plant is involve therefore genetic variation will be reduce ? Plants produce tends to be more uniform in characteristics. Cross pollination ? Flower are on different plants ? Plants have the characteristics of both parent ? Increase variations e. g. ? Yield ? Shape ? Size ? Increase resistance to disease ? Colour ? Taste ? Important for producing new varieties of crop plants and to improve existing varieties ? Crossing plants of the same species that are not closely related can produce new varieties. The offspring produce are called Hybrids. ? Hybrids tend to perform better than both parents i. e. produce higher yield and are more resistant to pest and diseases. Diagram showing crosspollination [pic] Fertilization is the joining of the male and female gamete to produce an embryo. The male gamete is found in the pollen grain while the female gametes are present in the ovule. Diagram showing processes involved in seed and fruit formation. [pic] THINK ABOUT IT You may have eaten or head about seed fruits such as oranges and grades. How is possible for these fruits to be formed without seeds. Mas Joe says that the corns he harvested have ‘scattered grains’ i. e. does not have uniforms rows of corn seeds. He believes that this due to the fact that the worker talked a lot during the planting of the crop. Using your scientific knowledge explain to him the true reason why his corns are ‘ scattered grains’ [pic][pic]