The stories we have studied Essay Example for Free

The stories we have studied Essay In the Blue Carbuncle Watson is again narrating the story. We see Holmes persuasive techniques and how he also doesnt reveal too much to Henry Baker. Its quite certain that he knows nothing whatever about the matter, we also see his persuasive techniques when he convinces the goose seller to show him the records. But Ill have a sovereign on with you, just to teach you not to be obstinate. Holmes here appeals to the sellers greedy side, as soon as money is mentioned he shows him the records. The Musgrave Ritual is narrated originally by Watson but Holmes tells the story of the Musgrave ritual. The butler makes quite and interesting criminal because he can speak a few other languages so he is a bit cleverer than an average butler. He has started deciphering the Musgrave ritual and when he is caught in Musgraves desk he pleads with Musgrave, Only a week, sir. He cried in a despairing voice The way he talks tells us that he is close to discovering the secret and that he only needs one more week. Towards the end of the story, Musgrave says What is it then? He gasped in astonishment, he says this because Holmes is about to tell him that he has found the ancient crown of the king of England. Throughout Doyles stories involving Sherlock Holmes he gives us insights into the view of Victorian England at the time. In the Speckled Band we see that there are lots of manors littered around the countryside and we also see that because people are rich they believe that they are above the law. We also see the want for money, and we see how far Dr Roylott was going to go to get it. The Man with the Twisted Lip shows us the poorer part of Victorian England; it shows Mrs Neville St Clair travelling up Upper Swandam Lane which is a typical poor place in London. We also learn that most of the races that have come to England have poor jobs, like we see Lascar-who is a black, running the opium den. The Blue carbuncle shows us that Geese were a familiar Christmas food (Turkeys came later). It gives us an insight into how geese were either town bred or country bred. Mrs Oakshott breeds geese in her backyard as a means of income and this shows Victorian women being enterprising. The Musgrave ritual shows us that they have Butlers and maids who lived and worked in estates for the rich. We also gain a further insight into the amount on manors and estates in Victorian England. Doyle uses two main characters within his Sherlock Holmes stories: Watson and Holmes. Both of these characters contrast vastly and I think that this contrast works well together in delivering the reader/audience with entertainment. Throughout the stories I have read Watson is often the funny character whereas Holmes is the one who solves the cases and has interesting habits. We see this within the Blue Carbuncle when Watson and Holmes are examining Henry Bakers hat. My dear Holmes! Watson said this when Holmes revealed all his knowledge that he could extract from Henry Bakers hat. This creates humour and acts as a contrast to Holmes more professional mood. In Conclusion I think that the Sherlock Holmes stories retain our interest today and remain so popular because of the contrasting characters of Watson and Holmes. Another reason is how Doyle varies the structure of the stories and how he makes the reader guess what has happened. Doyle also uses words like ejaculated to describe Holmes speech and this would appeal to people today as well as people in Victorian England.

Leonhard Euler | An Introduction

Leonhard Euler | An Introduction Born in Basel, Switzerland on 15th April 1707, Leonhard Euler was arguably the brightest mathematician of all time. The Swiss mathematician and physicist is considered a pioneer in many fields of mathematics. He introduced a lot of the mathematical terminology and notation used today and he is considered the father of mathematical analysis where, for instance, he introduced the notation of a mathematical function, f(x). His contributions to the field of mathematics are in analytic and differential geometry, calculus, the calculus of variation, differential equations, series and the theory of numbers. In physics, although really all his contributions to mathematics apply to physics, he introduced both rigid body mechanics and analytical mechanics (Kline, 401-402). Born to Paul Euler and Margarete Bruckner, Leonhard was the first of six children. He grew up in Riehen but attended school in Basel. Although mathematics was not taught in his school his father had kindled his interest in the subject (Paul Euler had been friends with another great mathematician at the time, Johann Bernoulli) by giving him lessons at home. Euler entered university at the age of 13 at the University of Basel. Although his official courses of study were philosophy and law, Euler met with Johann Bernoulli who advised Euler and gave him help with his mathematical studies on Saturday afternoons (Stillwell, 188). Euler lived and worked mainly in Russia and Germany. First he joined the faculty at St Petersburg Academy of Sciences were he worked at first in the medical department then he was quickly promoted to a senior position in the department of mathematics through the influence of his friend Daniel Bernoulli. He also helped the Russian government on many projects including serving in the Russian navy as a medical Lieutenant. After the death of Catherine I in1740 and because of the tough conditions that ensued, Euler moved to Germany at the invitation of Prussian King, Frederick II to the Prussian Academy of Science were he stayed for the next 25 years of his life. Euler gave much service to the Academy which compensated him generously. He sent most of his works to be published there, served as a representative as well as advising the Academy on its many scientific activities. It is there that he reached the peak of his career writing about 225 memoirs on almost every topic in physics and m athematics (Varadarajan, 11). Euler returned to St. Petersburg in 1766 under the invitation of the then czarina Catherine the Great (Catherine II) to the St Petersburg Academy. During this period he lost almost all his eyesight through a series of illnesses becoming nearly totally blind by 1771. Nevertheless, his remarkable memory saw him writing about 400 memoirs during this time. It is said that he had a large slate board fixed to his desk where he wrote in large letters so that he could view dimly what was being written. He died on the 18th day of September 1783 due to cerebral hemorrhaging. It is also recorded that he was working even to his last breath; calculations of the height of flight of a hot air balloon were found on his board (Varadarajan 13). Eulers contribution to Mathematics and Physics was a lot. His ideas in analysis led to many advances in the field. Euler is famously known for the development of function expressions like the addition of terms, proving the power series expansion, the inverse tangent function and the number e: ∑ (xn/n!)= lim ((1/0!) + (x/1!) + (x2/2!) +†¦+ (xn/n!) ) =ex The power series equation in fact helped him solve the famous 1735 Basel problem: ∑ (1/n2) = lim ((1/12) + (1/22) + (1/32) + †¦+(1/n2)) = Ï€2/6 He introduced the exponential function, e, and used it plus logarithms in analytic proofs. He also defined the complex exponential function and a special case now known as the Eulers Identity: eiφ = cos φ + isin φ And eiÏ€ + 1= 0 (Eulers Identity) In fact, De Moivres formula for complex functions is derived from Eulers formula. Similarly, De Moivre is recognized for the development of calculus of variations, formulating the Euler-Lagrange equation. He was also the first to use solve problems of number theory using methods of analysis. Thus, he pioneered the theories of hyperbolic trigonometric functions, hyper geometric series, the analytic theory of continued fractions and the q-series. In fact, his work in this field led to the progress of the prime number theorem (Dunham 81). The most prominent notation introduced by Euler is f(x) to denote the function, f that maps the variable x. In fact he is the one who introduced the notion of a function to the field of mathematics. He introduced, amongst others, the letter ∑ to mean the sum, Ï€ for the proportion regarding the perimeter of a circle up to the span or the diameter, i for the imaginary unit, √(-1) and the e (2.142†¦) to represent the base of the natural logarithm. Euler also contributed to Applied Mathematics. Interestingly enough, he developed some Mathematics applications into music by which he hoped to incorporate musical theory in mathematics. This was however, not successful. This notwithstanding, Euler did solve real-world problems by applying analytical techniques. For instance, Euler incorporated the Method of Fluxions which was developed by Newton together with Leibnizs differential calculus to develop tools that eased the application of calculus in physical problems. He is remembered for improving and furthering the numerical approximation of integrals, even coming up with the Euler approximations. More broadly, he helped to describe many applications of the constants Ï€ and e, Euler numbers, Bernoulli numbers and Venn diagrams. The Euler-Bernoulli beam equation (one of the most fundamental equations in engineering) is just one of the contributions of the mathematician to physics. He used his analytical skills in classical mechanics and used the same methods in solving celestial problems. He determined the orbits of celestial bodies and calculated the parallax of the sun. He differed with Newton (then the authority in physics) on his corpuscular theory of light. He supported the wave theory of light proposed by Hugens. Eulers contributions to graph theory are at the heart of the field of topology. He is famously known to have solved the Seven Bridges of Konigsberg problem, the solution of which is considered the first theorem of planar graph theory. He introduced the formula V-E+F=2 It is a mathematical formula relating vertices, edges and faces of a planar graph or polyhedron. The constant in the above formula in now called the Euler characteristic. Euler is also recognized for the use of closed curves in the provision of explanation concerning reasoning which is of syllogistic nature. Afterwards the illustration or diagrams were referred to as the Euler diagrams. The Number Theory is perhaps the most difficult branch of mathematics. Euler used ideas in analysis linking them with the nature of prime numbers to provide evidence that the total of all the reciprocals of prime numbers diverges. He also discovered the link between the primes Riemann zeta function, what is now called the Euler product formula for the Riemann zeta function. Euler made great strides in the Lagrange four-square theorem while proving Fermats theorem on the sum of two squares, Fermats Identities and Newtons identities. Number theory consists of several divisions which include the following: Algebraic Number Theory, Combinational Number theory, Analytic Number Theory, Transcendental number theory, Geometric number theory and lastly we have the Computational Number Theory. For his numerous contributions to academia, Euler won numerous awards. He won the Paris Academy Prize twelve times over the course of his career. He was elected as a foreign member, in 1755, of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences while his image has been featured on many Russian, Swiss and German postage stamps. Above all, he was respected greatly amongst his academic peers demonstrated by a statement made by the great French mathematician, Laplace to his students to read Euler since he was the master of them all (Dunham xiii). Though not all of the proofs of Euler are satisfactory in regard to the current standards or principles used in mathematics, the ideas created by him are of great importance. They have set a path to the current mathematical advancements. To conclude, we can therefore say that Euler is a very significant person in the development and advancement of Mathematics. His work has contributed a lot to mathematics up to the current period. References Dunham, William. Euler: The Master of Us All. Dolciani Mathemathical Expositions Vol. 22. MAAA, 1999. Kline, Morris. Mathematical Thoughts from Ancient to Modern Times, Vol 2. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972. Stillwell, John. Mathematics and its History. Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics. Springer, 2002. Varadarajan, V. S. Euler Through Time: A New Look at Old Themes. AMS Bookstore, 2006.

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis The chapter is a theoretical examination of the discipline of contrastive analysis. Its main aim is to provide a literature review of contrastive analysis. In pursuit of this aim, the chapter first sheds the light on the history of the discipline of contrastive analysis by providing a definition and a sketch of its origin. Then, an account of the stages involved in the comparison and contrastive process is provided. After that a classification of the contrastive studies is introduced. Additionally, a brief review of the contrastive analysis hypothesis is presented as well as CAs applications and contributions to other fields like language teaching, language universals, etc. Finally, the criticism directed towards CA is identified along with the recent developments originating from the discipline itself. Definition and Origin There are three types of comparative studies. They are comparative historical linguistics, comparative typological linguistics, and contrastive linguistics. Comparative historical linguistics developed in the 19th century, it aims to find the common genetic relatedness between groups of languages. Comparative typological linguistics classify languages according to the characteristics and features they share. Note that languages which belong to a given typological group do not need to be genetically related, i.e., two languages can be closely related in their typological classification regardless their genetic distance. Contrastive linguistics/analysis is a sub discipline in linguistics which is concerned with another kind of comparison. It is concerned neither with historical development nor with the problems of describing genetic relationships. Contrastive analysis is purely synchronic in its orientation. It differs in its scope from comparative historical linguistics, since it is t ypically concerned with a comparison of corresponding subsystems in only two languages. To put it differently, Contrastive analysis studies the language items used in the same period, not those items which exist in different periods. It involves comparing and contrasting languages or subsystems of languages in order to identify their similarities and differences. Accordingly, contrastive analysis is based on theoretical linguistics as well as descriptive linguistics. It is based on the former since the success or failure of these comparisons depends on the theory applied; and it is based on the latter since no comparison is to take place without a prior description of the languages under study. Contrastive analysis had a long history. As early as 1000 A.D, the English abbot Aelfric of Eynsham (c. 955 c. 1010) wrote his Grammatica: a grammar of Latin and English, based on the assumption that the knowledge of grammar of one language facilitates the learning of the other. Additionally, in the 17th century, the grammarian John Hewes expresses the view that the knowledge of the native grammar cannot only facilitate learning a foreign language but also interface (the idea of interference) with it. Hewes in his (1624) A Perfect Survey of the English Tongue taken according to the USA and analogie of the Latine, presented the fundamentals of English in order to provide the learner with a Right knowledge censure of their owne mother tongue, in regard it holden a great difference in it selfe from the dialect of the Latine (as cited in Krzeszowski, Tomasz, 1990, p. 02). Other grammarians like Howel (1662), Coles (1675), and Lewis (1670?) applied the idea of facilitation (positive transfer) through adapting the grammars of English or of Latin to the needs of speakers of various native languages. Note that those early contrastive studies were motivated in almost the same way as modern contraceptive studies in the USA. As early as 1670, Mark Lewis stated the following: The most facil (sic!) way of introducing any in a Tongue unknown is to show what Grammar it hath beyond, or short of his Mother tongue; following that Maxime, to proceed a noto ad ignotum, making what we know, a step to what we are to lean (sic!) (as cited in Krzeszowski, Tomasz, 1990, p. 02). Nearly three centuries later, Charles Fries wrote the following: The most efficient materials are those that are based upon a scientific description of the languages to be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner (Fries, 1945, p. 9) Although the word contrast did not appear until the end of the 18th century, the idea of comparing languages for pedagogical reasons is not a new one, as it goes back to the beginning of the foreign language teaching tradition. Nevertheless, written records of such kind of procedures went back to the 15th century. It should be mentioned that earlier contrastivists were not concerned with methodological problems, though they did develop a method of comparison know as The Sign Theory, the first method in contrastive studies. The sign theory is an approach introduced by Krzeszowski (1985) and was designed for teaching Latin in England; it involved adjusting the grammatical descriptions of both English and Latin. For many years, contrastive studies were practiced in the classroom intuitively. However, modern linguistic theories which flourished in the 20th century did affect the state of contrastive studies and hence, interests in methodology and theory of contrastive analysis began to grow. Contrastive analysis usually involves two languages and it is based on the assumption that languages have enough in common to be compared, as stated by James (1980, p. 3): CA is a linguistic enterprise aimed at producing inverted (i.e. contrastive, not comparative) two-valued typologies (a CA is always concerned with a pair of languages), and founded on the assumption that languages can be compared. Among the prominent objectives of contrastive analysis are: supplying insights into the convergences and divergences existing among languages, predicting problematic areas in L2 learning and contributing to the development of language teaching materials. A quick glance at the history of the discipline of CA will manifest that it has been assigned different labels by different European and American scholars. It was referred to as parallel description (Fries 1945), analytical comparison (Mathesius, 1964), comparative descriptive linguistics (Halliday-McIntosh-Stevens 1964), differential description (Mackey 1965), descriptive comparison (Catford 1968), dialinguistic analysis (Nemser 1971), analytical description (Ibid), differential studies (Lee 1974), interlingual comparison (Fillipovic 1975c). However, the widely used term contrastive linguistics has been coined by the American linguist and anthropologist Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941) in his 1941 article Languages and logic. In the aforementioned article, Whorf distinguished between comparative and contrastive linguistics. He claimed that contrastive linguistics is of even greater importance for the future technology of thought (1967, p. 240); and he defines it as a discipline which plots the outstanding differences among tongues in grammar, logic, and general analysis of experience. Contrastive analysis first appeared in Central Europe before the Second World War and spread afterwards in North America. It was Lados Linguistics Across Cultures (1957) which sets the corner stone of contrastive analysis, specifically the idea that the degree of differences between the two languages correlates with that of difficulty. In its early days in the forties (1940s) and fifties (1950s), CA was seen as a pedagogical tool, through which problematic areas in language teaching and learning can be predicted. Accordingly, CA relies very much on psychology as it is concerned with the prediction of learning difficulties which crop up from learners NL and TL; hence it needs a psychological component. It should be mentioned that CA is more powerful in the prediction of pronunciation difficulties, however, when it comes to grammar, it is not so powerful since most of grammatical errors in second language learning occur in areas where CA cannot predict. It is important to realize that there are three phases of Contrastive Analysis; each having its own characteristics: the (1) traditional, (2) classical and (3) modern phase. Traditional contrastive studies which marked the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century were horizontal in dimension in the sense that an element(s) in language A is compared with an equivalent element(s) in language B. They proceed from the description of the same features in the two languages to their juxtaposition on the basis of translation equivalence as assessed by a bilingual informant. Normally, a point of reference, often called tertium comparationis, is required outside the languages to be contrasted. The period between the end of the Second World War and 1965 was recognized as the classical period of contrastive studies. In this period, CA has been credited its status as a scientific, pragmatic as well as academic discipline. The most prominent figures of that period are Charles Fries, Robert Lado, Kenneth Pike, Ureil Weinreich among many others. The modern period of contrastive studies has been marked by the numerous contrastive projects carried out all over the world. However, it should be emphasized that theoretical issues of previous periods came under severe criticism. We will return to this presently, for the time being, it is sufficient to see that a problem exists. Despite the criticism of the previous periods, this phase marked the establishment of CA as an academic discipline throughout the world. It should be emphasized that modern linguistic approaches and technology have opened new horizons for CA. Notably, cognitive linguistics, pragmatics and corpus linguistics have all offered new theoretical frameworks and methodology. Stages of Contrastive Analysis Contrastive Analysis involves three stages, description, juxtaposition, and comparison. Lets consider each stage separately. The descriptive stage In this stage, the contrastive analyst provides an exhaustive description of the languages under study. Note that each language should be described individually apart from the other. Furthermore, the two languages should be described using the same model or framework, because if it happens that the two languages were described using different models, certain features may be described successfully than others. The juxtaposition stage In this stage, the contrastive analyst should respond to the following question: what is to be compared with what? In classical contrastive studies, the decision was based on intuitive judgments of competent bilingual informants. It was thought that competent bilinguals are able to decide about whether an element X in language A is equivalent to element Y in language B or is not. However, these intuitive judgments proved to be very weak as there are no clear principles underlying these decisions and as they were based on formal resemblances only which are not enough. As a consequence, the contrastive analyst faced the problem of establishing the criteria of comparison, also referred to as the tertium comparationis. It should be mentioned that the tertium comparationis is a kind of constant against which differences are measured, as stated by James (1980): The first thing we do is make sure that we are comparing like with like: this means that the two (or more) entities to be compared, while differing in some respect, must share certain attributes. This requirement is especially strong when we are contrasting, i.e., looking for differences-since it is only against a background of sameness that differences are significant. We shall call this sameness the constant and the differences variables. (p. 169) The notions of the equivalence and the tertium comparationis were presented graphically in Djordjevi (1987). In traditional contrastive studies, the TC was defined as the common platform of reference (Krzeszowski, 1990, p. 15). During the classical period, however, the TC was either formally or semantically based (James, 1980). Note that in phonological CA, the tertium comparationis is the IPA chart and the vowel diagram; in Lexis, it is the set of semantic components. However, contrastivists failed to establish a clear TC for grammatical CA. Because of this failure, three candidates have been proposed: surface structure TC, deep structure TC, and translation equivalence TC. The comparative stage In this stage, the contrastive analyst identifies the similarities and differences existing among the two languages. Note that the comparison involves types and not tokens (i.e. the contrastive analyst compares structures rather than strings of sound or graphic substance). Another issue related to the comparison stage is the fact that one does not compare languages in toto, instead a specifying process is usually under way, like for example the area of grammar, phonology or lexicology; which result in a variety of contrastive studies such as grammatical CA, phonological CA, and lexical CA. According to Krzeszowski (1990), there are three distinguished areas in this stage: Comparisons of various equivalent systems across languages, such as pronouns, articles, verbs, and in phonology consonants, vowels, as well as sub-systems, such as nasals, laterals, etc., depending on the degree of delicacy of the grammar. Comparisons of equivalent constructions, for example, interrogative, relative, negative, nominal phrase, etc., And in phonology clusters, syllables, diphthongs, and various distributions of sounds. Comparisons of equivalent rules (in those models where the concept of the rule appears), for example, subject raising from the embedded sentence, adjective placement, interrogative inversion, passivization, etc., and in phonology assimilation, dissimilation, metathesis, etc. In each area of comparison, one of three possible situations may arise: XLi = XLj When item X in Li may be identical in some respects with an equivalent item in Lj. XLi à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚   XLj When item X in Li may be different in some respects from an equivalent item in Lj. XLi = ØLj When item X in Li has no equivalent in Lj. (Krzeszowski, 1976, p. 90) (as cited in Krzeszowski, Tomasz, 1990, p. 39). Levels of Analysis Contrastive analysis can be conducted at different levels of language, for example it can be carried out at the phonological level, grammatical level, as well as the lexical level. Phonological CA When comparing the sound system of two languages, the contrastive analyst has to go through four basic steps. Firstly, he should draw up the phonemic inventory (describe and compare vowels and consonants) of the two languages under study. Secondly, the contrastive analyst should compare the phonemes in the two languages interlingually. At this stage, the contrastive analyst should apply the minimal pair test. Here is an example of the minimal pair test between the phonemes /k/ and /g/ in English and Arabic: English: came /Keim/ vs. game /geim/ Arabic: /kelb/ dog vs. /gelb/ heart In Algerian Arabic /q/ and /g/ are phonemes and allophones: /gern/ horn vs. /qern/ century à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ phonemes /gma::r/ moon vs. /qma:r/ moon à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ allophones Thirdly, the contrastive analyst should state the allophones of each phoneme of the two languages being compared. And fourthly, he should state the distribution restrictions of the phonemes and allophones of both languages. Grammatical CA In a grammatical contrastive analysis, the contrastive analyst compares and contrasts between the grammatical systems of two languages. The comparison may take different forms, for example, in English; word order is used to differentiate between an affirmative sentence and an interrogative one: you are a teacher/are you a teacher? In Spanish, however, the same distinction is indicated via the use of intonation; while in Arabic, the same distinction is expressed through the addition of functional words like Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ at the beginning of sentences. Another kind of grammatical contrastive analysis may investigate how a given linguistic category functions in two different languages, such as the case of adjectives in English and French. In English, adjectives tend to be pronominal, however, in French; they tend to be post nominal, for example: The narrow door La porte etroite. Lexical CA Contrastive lexicology is carried out between the vocabulary system(s) of two languages. It is concerned with the way lexical items in one language are expressed in another language. This can be done through identifying both the semantic fields and the semantic properties in order to specify the divisions and sub-divisions of the lexicon. Lexical CA may result in complete, partial, or nil equivalence between languages. Towards the Classification of Contrastive Studies Contrastive studies can be divided into various subdivisions according to many criteria. Jacek Fisiak distinguished between theoretical contrastive studies and applied contrastive studies as stated in the following quote: Theoretical CS give an exhaustive account of the differences and similarities between two or more languages provide an adequate model for their comparison, determine how and which elements are comparable, thus defining such notions as congruence, equivalence, correspondence, etc. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Applied CS is part of applied linguistics. Drawing on the findings of theoretical contrastive studies they provide a framework for the comparison of languages, selecting whatever information is necessary for a specific purpose, e.g. teaching, bilingual analysis, translating, etc. (Fisiak, 1981, p. 9) He claims that theoretical contrastive studies do not investigate how a given category present in language A is represented in language B. Instead they look for the realization of a universal category X in both A and B (Fisiak et al. 1978: 10). Whereas, applied contrastive studies are preoccupied with the problem of how a universal category X, realized in language A as y, is rendered in language B. (Fisiak et al., 1978, p. 10), as illustrated below: X X A B A(y) B(?) Figure 2. a) Theoretical CAs b) Applied CAs Hence, a theoretical contrastive study provides us with exhaustive descriptions of the languages being compared and contrasted. Also, it highlights the main points of convergences and divergences between the languages in question. A worth emphasizing point is that there are no claims to be made as to whether the results are applicable for other purposes or not. An advantage of theoretical contrastive analyses is that they make reference to the universal tertium comparationis X; whereas applied contrastive analyses do not make such a reference. Additionally, theoretical contrastive studies contribute to the establishment of language universals. Also, they are language independent and non-directional. It should be mentioned that theoretical contrastive studies insist on the descriptive neutrality between the two languages under study, which is why attention should be drawn to some problems of terminology. In contrastive studies, terms like SL vs. TL, L1 vs. L2, and NL vs. FL occur and re-occur. However, the avoidance of these terms is highly required in theoretical contrastive studies, simply because the languages under study have an equal status. Applied contrastive studies draw on the findings of theoretical contrastive studies. Their aim is not merely linguistic but also applicable to other domains like: language teaching, translation, bilingual education, etc. Traditionally speaking, applied contrastive studies have been concerned with setting out the possible problematic areas in the learners target language, i.e., providing reliable prediction of the learners difficulties (James, 1980, p. 181-7). It should be mentioned that Applied contrastive studies devote more attention to surface representations since these are what the learners/translators have a more immediate access to and what language teaching has always been concerned with. Despite the fact that applied contrastive studies draw on the findings of theoretical contrastive studies, still they do not deal only with differences but also they give importance to the similarities. Hence, the teacher should point out the similar forms, so that learners will not guess them, because very often, an element of a foreign language is similar to what one has in his own language. Notice that the first contrastive studies were predominantly theoretical (Grandgent, 1982; Vietor, 1894; Passy, 1912; J Baudouin de Courtenay, 1912; Bogorodickij, 1915). Still, the applied part of CA was not completely neglected (e.g. Vietor, 1903), but it was of little importance. Also, the aim of developing pedagogical materials was more visible in the US, while Europe was more interested in the theoretical dimension. The other classification of contrastive studies is based on the linguistic model applied when describing the languages involved. Since contrastive analysis can be carried out in different linguistic frameworks, there are the structural, transformational, stratificational, or systemic contrastive studies. A third taxonomy is the one provided by Di Pietro (1971). He divided contrastive studies into Autonomous vs. Generalized and into Taxonomic vs. Operational. In autonomous contrastive studies, no reference is made to any universal which may be shared between the languages compared. Each language is described independently from the other. However, in generalized contrastive studies, reference is made to the shared features/structures which exist between the compared languages, not only because of their typological or genetic similarities but because of the universal grammar which underlie all human languages. Concerning the Taxonomic vs. Operational contrastive studies, the former states the similarities and differences across languages, the latter seeks to formulate a series of conversions performed on the source language in order to produce the forms of the goal language (Di Pietro 1971, as cited in Krzeszowski, Tomasz, 1990, p. 24). Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) Definition and origin Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis states that the structure of the learners L1 affects the acquisition (the two terms acquisition/learning interchangeably) of their L2, in the sense that whenever there are similarities the L2 learning is facilitated, and whenever there are differences the learning process is difficult. The term Contrastive Hypothesis implies the theory itself, while the term Contrastive Analysis implies the methodology. Hence, the term Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis implies both theory and methodology. CAH came into existence in the 1960s. It originated from Lados Linguistics across Cultures: The plan of the book rests on the assumption that we can predict and describe the patterns that will cause difficulty in learning, and those that will not cause difficulty, by comparing systematically the language and the culture to be learned with the native language and culture of the student (1957, p. VII). CAH is based on the assumption that second language learners tend to transfer L1 features to L2 utterances as stated by Lado (1957): Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings, and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture (p. 2). Accordingly, Ellis (1965) suggested that the psychological foundation of CAH is transfer theory. In fact, CAs assumption that L1 interferes with the learners L2 acquisition/Learning leads us to the notion of transfer; be it positive or negative. Transfer refers to the application of native language knowledge when trying to speak the target language. Positive Transfer (facilitation) occurs when the structure of the two languages is the same; hence no errors will crop up. However, negative transfer (interference) occurs when the structure of the languages is different, and here errors will crop up and so the difficulties in tackling the target language. All in all, the more the similarities the more the learning process is facilitated, and the more the differences the more the learning process will be difficult. The aforementioned statement reflects linguists belief that a comparison of learners L1 and L2 will reveal problematic areas for L2 students, as stated by Lado (1957): In the comparison between native and foreign language lies the key to ease or difficulty in foreing language learningà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Those elements that are similar to (the learners) native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult. (p. 1-2) The linguistic framework of the CAH is structuralism which assumes that language is a finite structure which can be compared with structures of other languages. Additionally, Skinners behavioural psychology is the basis of the CAH, specifically, the idea that learning is a habit formation process that takes place by reinforcement. Language acquisition consists of the acquisition of a set of habits; errors in second language were seen as the result of the first language habits interfering with the acquisition of the habits of the second. Procedures of the contrastive analysis hypothesis CAH applies the following procedure when attempting to predict areas of difficulty, as illustrated or stated by Whitman (1970): A contrastive analysis must proceed through four steps; description, selection, contrast, and prediction. Unfortunately, most analyses are weakened by insufficient care or attention at one or more of these steps, each of which is beset with a host of problems. (p. 191) In the Description stage, the contrastive analyst provides a formal description of the learners L1 and L2. In the selection stage, he selects specific forms (linguistic items, or rules, or structures, etc.) for contrast, as it is impossible to contrast every single facet of two languages. In the contrast stage, he carries out the contrastive process which will result in highlighting the similarities and differences existing among the two languages. Finally, come the stage of prediction in which the contrastive analyst predicts the problematic issues and difficulties, which the learner may or may not face while learning the target language. In order to describe the stage of prediction, Stockwell et al. (1965) proposed a hierarchy of difficulty based on the notion of transfer, be it positive transfer, negative transfer or zero transfer. When the forms of the two languages are similar, positive transfer will occur and hence the facilitation of the learning process; however, when the forms of the two languages are different, negative transfer will occur and hence difficulty in learning; when there is no relation at all between the forms of the two languages, here no transfer is to take place, i.e., zero transfer. Versions of the CAH It is important to realize that there are different versions of the CAH. These are the strong and weak versions of Wardhaugh (1970) and the moderate version of Oller and Ziahosseiny (1970). Wardhaugh (1970) suggested that the strong version predicts areas of difficulty via providing a systematic and scientific analysis of the learners L1 and L2. However, the weak version requires of the linguist only that he uses the best linguistic knowledge available to account for observed difficulties in second language learning. (Wardhaugh, 1970, p. 129) So, there is a shift in focus from the predictive power of areas of difficulty to the explanatory power of observable errors. In addition, Oller and Ziahosseiny (1970) find the strong version too strong and the weak version too weak, and so they proposed a moderate version of the hypothesis which they summarized as follows: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the categorization of abstract and concrete patterns according to their perceived similarities and differences is the basis for learning; therefore, wherever patterns are minimally distinct in form or meaning in one or more systems, confusion may result (p. 186). To explain their view, they conducted a study based on English spelling errors on the UCLA placement test. In this test, they compared the spelling errors of foreign students whose native language employed/uses a Roman alphabet with foreign students spelling errors whose native language has little or no relation to the Roman alphabet. They arrive to the conclusion that knowledge of one Roman writing system makes it more difficult to learn/acquire another Roman spelling system. Implementations of Contrastive Analysis Be it a very useful tool, CA is applied in many fields of inquiry. It contributes to different areas of study as stated in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics: CA has been used as a tool in historical linguistics to establish language genealogies, in comparative linguistics to create language taxonomies and in translation theory to investigate problems of equivalence. In language teaching it has been influential through the contrastive analysis hypothesis CAHà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Johnson Johnson, 1998, p. 85) Contrastive analysis and language teaching In the field of language teaching, CA has been influential through the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, as Fries point out: The most efficient materials are those that are based upon a scientific description of the languages to be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner (1945, p. 9) As a matter of fact, the contributions of contrastive analysis to the field of language teaching are numerous and remarkable. First, a contrastive analysis of the learners L1 and L2 helps syllabus designers to prepare effective teaching materials taking into consideration students difficulties. As stated by Lado in his (1957) Linguistics across Cultures: The results of such comparisons have proven of fundamental value for the preparation of teaching materials, test and language teaching experiments. Foreign language teachers who understand this field will acquire insights and tools for evaluating the language and culture content of the textbooks and tests, supplementing the materials in use, preparing new materials and tests, and diagnosing students difficulties accurately. ( p. I) Secondly, contrastive analysis provides useful insights to the teacher who has performed a contrastive analysis between the students L1 and L2, and makes him/her aware of the real learning problems and the best way(s) to teach them, as stated by Lado (1957): The teacher who has made a comparison of a foreign language with the native language of the student will know better what the real learning problems are and can better provide for teaching them. (p. 2) In addition to Lado, Mackey (1965) illustrates the significance of CA to language teaching in the following quotation: CA is of particular interest to language teaching because many of the difficulties in learning a second language are due to the fact that it differs from the first. So that if we subtract the characteristics of the first language from those of the second; what presumably remains is a list of the learners difficulties. I DID NOT FIND THE PAGE It seems likely then, that the most useful contribution that Contrastive Analysis can make to language teaching lies in predicting learning difficulties and helping syllabus designers to produce the most effective materials. Contrastive analysis and language typology

The Unladylike Lady in Macbeth :: Macbeth essays

The Unladylike Lady in Macbeth      Ã‚   William Shakespeare's tragedy Macbeth presents in the role of the leading lady an intimidating and selfish Lady Macbeth. Let us in this paper get to the bottom of her character.    L.C. Knights in the essay "Macbeth" describes the unnaturalness of Lady Macbeth's words and actions:    Thus the sense of the unnaturalness of evil is evoked not only be repeated explicit references ("nature's mischief," "nature seems dead," " 'Tis unnatural, even like the deed that's done," and so on) but by the expression of unnatural sentiments and an unnatural violence of tone in such things as Lady Macbeth's invocation of the "spirits" who will "unsex" her, and her affirmation that she would murder the babe at her breast if she had sworn to do it. (95)    Samuel Johnson in The Plays of Shakespeare underscores how ambition by the protagonists leads to detestation on the part of the readers:    The danger of ambition is well described; and I know not whether it may not be said in defence of some parts which now seem improbable, that, in Shakespeare's time, it was necessary to warn credulity against vain and illusive predictions. The passions are directed to their true end. Lady Macbeth is merely detested; and though the courage of Macbeth preserves some esteem, yet every reader rejoices at his fall. (133)    In "Macbeth as the Imitation of an Action" Francis Fergusson specifies the fears within Lady Macbeth:      I do not need to remind you of the great scenes preceding the murder, in which Macbeth and his Lady pull themselves together for their desperate effort. If you think over these scenes, you will notice that the Macbeths understand the action which begins here as a competition and a stunt, against reason and against nature. Lady Macbeth fears her husband's human nature, as well as her own female nature, and therefore she fears the light of reason and the common dayllight world. As for Macbeth, he knows from the first that he is engaged in an irrational stunt: "I have no spur / To prick the sides of my intent, but only / Vaulting ambition, which o'erleaps itself / And falls on the other." In this sequence there is also the theme of outwitting or transcending time, an aspect of nature's order as we know it: catching up the consequences, jumping the life to come, and the like.

World War II Essay -- History, War

World War II brought peace and economic prosperity to the Allied nations, which allowed for the fertility rate in North America to increase. This caused an explosion in the population of the U.S. especially, with around 78 million babies born by the end of the 1940s-1960s, according to Colombia Dictionary. Similarly, Canada experienced a surge of 479,000 babies following the 1950s (Henripin, Krotki 1). A large population amounts to a shift in demographics, and subsequently the social system of North America started to change gradually in order to adapt to the new baby boom generation. As a result of a new economic affluence in the continent, North American society became materialistic and consumerism seized a big part of the economy (Owram 309). Children became an important demographic for companies, leading to the toy industry benefitting and expanding (Gillion 5). Technology advanced considerably, too: in the 1950s, the television became a ground-breaking medium that helped people spread ideas, see what was going on in their country and the rest of the world, much like what the printing press did for the Renaissance. Although the post-WWII baby boom only occurred in a few countries, namely the U.S. and Canada, this time period transformed the West and the world immensely—the areas of life that were affected during the baby boom went on to greatly influence later generations and decades due to the change and reform it yielded, which replaced the outdated and unethical traditions of the old West and the world. Prevailing social and political attitudes of the baby boom were much more liberal than they were in the pre-war decades. Numerous social issues found their way into the spotlight, such as women's rights and the sexual rev... ...ame needs as an effect of consumerism on the baby boom generation. The same materialism of the 1950s conceived a new consciousness in the 1960s, equating to new values for the baby boom generation, such as self-actualization, social consciousness and tolerance. During the 1950s, the U.S. achieved the highest standard of living in the world, metamorphosing the working class into the new middle class (Monhollon xvi). The richest generation in North American history and the 21st century has left behind a plethora of valuable lessons that will not be forgotten soon. In conclusion, the baby boom, which lead to a long cycle of prosperity and growth in the post-WWII years is crucial because it redefined the traditional and rigid values people wrongfully harbored in the past and spearheaded dramatic change on a global level, bringing the West and the World closer than ever.

Funding for Pakistan and Culture Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive Cul

Funding for Pakistan and Culture Emancipation from the bondage of soil is not freedom for the tree, Rabindranath Tagore, A Bengali poet from the early part of the Twentieth Century History The history of Pakistan as a country is a fairly short one. Pakistan was created and carved out of the country of India in 1947 when the 200-year-old Britain rule of India came to an end and a plan was made to return the continent back to local rule. There was a movement at the time led by the renowned poet Muhammad Iqbal and a prominent politician named Muhammad Ali Jinnah to create a country on the Indian Sub-continent that would be a nation for the Muslim people of the region. Pakistan was created out of the two predominantly Muslim regions in the north west and the east, creating East and West Pakistan. A war was fought in 1971 in which the eastern region split away from the western region, creating two separate nations, Bangladesh and Pakistan. As is often the case with citizens of a new country, there is a lot of national pride among Pakistanis. Most do not lose their language or deny what ethnicity they belong to as I have seen in some Mexican American groups. Some Pakistani people I have known who were born here and have never even been to Pakistan still have pride in customs, clothing, language and religion. Language Development The Indian Subcontinent is a region of provinces where the people of each province speak a local language and have customs different from all other provinces. When the British established rule over the entire continent, it became apparent that they could not unit the country unless there was a language everyone could speak in common. The story is that the British actually in... ...ural Literacy , Houghton Mifflin, 1993. Hirsch, E.D., Jr., Cultural Literacy, What Every American Needs to Know , Houghton Mifflin, 1987. â€Å"Immigrants and Their Educational Attainment: Some Facts and Findings,† Schwarz, Wendy, ERIC Digest ED#402398, Nov. 1996 â€Å"Language-Minority Student Achievement and Program Effectiveness†, Thomas, Dr. Wayne p. And Dr. Virginia Collier, NABE News Vol. 19, May 1, 1996 â€Å"Secondary Newcomer Programs: Helping Recent Immigrants Prepare for School Success†,Short, Deborah J., ERIC Database #ED419385, 1998. â€Å"Trends in K-12 Social Studies,† Risinger, C. Frederick, ERIC Digest #ED351278, Oct. 1992 â€Å"Two-Way Bilingual Education Programs in Practice: A National and Local Perspective†, ERIC Digest, ED379915, Dec. 1994 You have my permission to publish this paper on the Internet. Michele_Iqbal@fastinet.net

Polygamy Its Negative Implications and Consequences Essay

Polygamy: Its Negative Implications and Consequences Introduction                     The affinity for human beings to live in pairs is entirely natural. A blissful marriage is characterized by love, respect, and trust. Warmth becomes the motivational drive towards the perfection of life in the present world and thereafter (McMahon, 2010). On the contrary, an unhappy marriage leads to despair and disillusionment and negatively affects the people involved. Defined as the practice or condition of marrying more than one wife at the same time, polygamy has persisted in many cultures world over. In most societies such as Islam, the practice is very much prevalent (Ward, 2010). The sacred books and scriptures contain abundant evidence of the fact that polygamy was indeed practiced by patriarchal prophets Hindus and Jews. In Arabia and the countries adjoining, polygamy, temporary marriages, unrestricted concubinage, and marriages of convenience were highly rife (Jencks and Milton, 2010).  Their effects were reported to be disastrous on the entire social and moral structure. Polygamy remains a common, well-buried secret that is often problematic and still exists throughout many countries to date. It is a more common practice than most people actually realize (Jacobson and Burton, 2011). Thesis Statement: Polygamy has been tried many times in free democratic countries, and it never succeeds. It is not compatible with freedom, equality, and human rights. It always results in child brides and brainwashing. Types of polygamy                     Polygamy as earlier defined is a form of marriage where a person has more than one wife. It generally occurs in two types. The most common is polygyny, where a man marries more than one wife. The less common type, polyandry, is a system of marriage where a woman marries more than one man (Darger, 2011).  In the Islamic culture, the practice of polygyny is highly condoned while polyandry is highly condemned. In ancient times, polygamy existed in the Judaism culture. In the Old Testament of the Bible, Abraham had three wives and Solomon had more than three hundred wives. This practice continued until Rabbi Gershom ben Yehudah issued a decree against it. The Jewish Sephardic communities living in Muslim countries continued the practice until late 1950’s when a ban was extended against marrying more than one wife (Bennion, 2012). In any of these forms, polygamy should be against the law in any religion culture or country. A third type of polygamy exists as polyamory and is often referred to as postmodern polygamy. Polyamory is a relationship of multiple men and women. These relationships may take the form of one man with several female partners, two men with several female partners or several women with no men. Unlike polygamy, polyamory offers more equal opportunities for divorce (Crooks and Baur, 2014). Virtually all polygamous marriages are polygynous in fact. There is no evidence that points to polyamorous relationships being likely to lead to polygyny. As such, polyamory remains problematic for much the same reasons that the current practice of polygamy (Gallichan, 2012). Due to these views, polyamory is not a clearly preferable alternative to polygamy. Practice of polygamyIn his paper, polygamy and non-heterosexual marriages, David Chambers emphasizes that in the country’s history, the most widespread and significant practice of polygamy by far transpired among the Mormons during mid nineteenth century. To them, Mormons believed that polygamous marriages were biblical and approved by God. Polygamy is neither exclusively western nor non-western. Over the ages, Muslims, Hindus and other religious groups have practiced it. However, the number of polygamous marriages is relatively miniature despite cross- cultural presence of polygamy. (Beaman and Calder, 2013).  The standard debate over the permissibility of polygamy has been characteristically pitiable. Proponents argue that in part, married men form relationships with mistresses. These unions involve emotional commitments that are not easily terminated unlike polygamy. In essence, a married man and his mistress are involved in a polygamous relationship. Funny enough, this does not appear to generate much hostility from critics. The New Testament in the Bible never deemed it immoral or inferior to be in a monogamous union. Shockingly, more Americans are practicing polygamy than one might think. Even more horrendous is the fact that more than half of the non- industrialized societies still permit it (Bennion, 2012). It is regarded as deeply sinful to engage in sexual relationships outside the institution of marriage. In Christianity, it is believed a man should not have more than one registered wife with the state. Such an action would violate tax codes and many other legal umbrellas (Ward, 2010). The legal laws in the United States document registered plural marriages and polygamy as illegal and therefore not be practiced (McMahon, 2010). In my opinion, polygamy is disgusting and should not be practiced neither in countries nor in cultures alike. One could easily argue what exactly does polygamy try to prove. That a man can have multiple wives, become unfaithful and get away with it? Imagine the silent anguish that a young naà ¯ve girl of twelve years endures when coerced into marrying a feebly, wobbly looking old man whom she has never seen before. Imagine the grotesque images that come into mind when this girl is forced to bear children until her body become sore due to excruciating labour pains. Imagine the girl being brainwashed and battered for contradicting beliefs held by another man and forced to live with him for her entire lifetime. Now stop imagining. This is the scary would of polygamy that exists in a form not known to many. Such are the cases that continue to r ecur in most countries, especially Africa and Asia. In itself, polygamy is considered a right to a selected few and a bane to majority (McMahon, 2010). Reasons why polygamy is practiced                     Before we look at the negative implications of polygamy, it would be important to understand why the system was and is still practiced to date. To many, this custom serves as a dynamic principle of family survival, growth, security, prestige and continuity (Jacobson and Burton, 2011).  One of the main reasons polygamy was practiced is that several wives were seen as a symbol of wealth, power and influence in traditional African societies for many centuries. Secondly, it was important for a man in traditional society to continue his family name into future lineages (McMahon, 2010). Marrying many wives ensured that the husband would have many male children to carry on his name. It also meant that one would be remembered and honored long after their death through his children and grandchildren (Jacobson and Burton, 2011). In the agricultural perspective, many wives meant that one would have necessary laborers for farming, taking care of livestock and performing all household chores. This was coupled with provision of help when necessity arose. A larger family was symbolic of strength and unity. It was also seen as a way to maintain happiness and add meaning to life. Having many wives was also a route of keeping the man from being amorous. The reason was that most wives denied their husbands conjugal rights after childbirth for up to two years. Hence, having an additional wife meant the husband would not be unfaithful (Jencks and Milton, 2010). For the husband, having many wives meant he would get many daughters from them. This contributed to a significant increase of his wealth through bride price at the time of his daughters’ marriage. In most traditional African societies, it was considered a vice for a woman to lack children especially in marriage (Jencks and Milton, 2010). It was for this reason that most African women preferred to have a co-wife than remain single in ridicule. As such, polygamy solved the problem of single parenthood. It also offered women the security and dignity required for self-realization. Finally yet importantly, polygamy resulted through the ancient tradition of wife inheritance. The death of a husband whose wife had not passed childbearing age qualified for wife inheritance. The brother of the deceased was obliged to marry his brother’s widow (Beaman and Calder, 2013). All the above reasons applied in traditional African societies. However, in the contemporary world today, most of these practices have been overtaken by time and can no longer be practicable. Negative implications of polygamy                     Effects on women in polygamous marriages.In my view, polygamy is a way of life that should not be allowed in society due to its negative implications. Primarily, it creates male dominated marriages where the woman is left voiceless in the whole setup. Secondly, it forces women into subordinate roles and results in unworkable families full of strife, abuse and incest (Ward, 2010).  Polygamous families usually live in isolated communities that are totally unaffected by the outside world. The seclusion of these towns raises eyebrows concerning security, safety and health of the town dwellers, state law enforcers, federal laws and the country at large (Beaman and Calder, 2013).   It can therefore be argued women face greater risks in polygamous marriages. The standard argument remains that polygamy subordinates women and fails to treat the latter as equals with men. Some scholars argue that the state should not take interest in voluntary family arran gements (McMahon, 2010). The reason behind it being that it would illegitimately endorse one comprehensive doctrine over others. To them, an unjust family arrangement is one that undermines the equality of women and fails to recognize that wives are equal citizens with their husbands. As such, polygamy is a structural inegalitarian practice that subjects women to higher risks of harmful effects compared to men (McMahon, 2010). It is for this reason that polygamy should be forbidden since it denies women the liberty, rights and opportunities available to men. In essence, polygamy represents an unjustified asymmetry of power between men and women and in my opinion should therefore be banned. Overpopulation in affected countriesIn sub-Saharan Africa, the culture of polygamy has contributed to explosive population growth since the early 1950’s (McMahon, 2010). By exposing almost all women to early and prolonged dangers of pregnancy, polygamy results in high fertility rates of between seven and nine children in these countries. The introduction of low-priced and effective healthcare and sanitary technology from developed countries is also a contributing factor (McMahon, 2010). The control of sexually transmitted infections becomes overly difficult in the practice of polygamy (Beaman and Calder, 2013).   Take for instance a man who has five wives under his wing. He will engage in sexual relations with all of them and since he is married to all, using protection becomes inconsequential. If either the man or one of the wives is suffering from a sexually transmitted disease, every other participant in the fold is at risk of contracting it. In a study conducted in Nigeria, West Africa, it was found that those men in the survey had more than three or more wives (Beaman and Calder, 2013).  This meant that they were more likely to engage in extra-marital sex and were at higher risk of contacting sexually transmitted diseases and infecting their wives. This proves women were at higher risk from men with three or more wives both as their wives and as extramarital sex partners. As a form of behavior, Christian missionaries and Eurasian societies consider polygamy morally wrong. Well-read Christian-African elites in sub Saharan Africa believe polygamy is backward, bush and barbaric behavior (Jencks and Milton, 2010).   To outsiders, polygamy is a highly undetestable social system whose origin is traced back to pre-colonial times. In addition, polygamy often coincides with crimes that target women and children such as incest, sexual assault, statutory rape and failure to pay child support (Jencks and Milton, 2010). Marital dissatisfaction                     Another argument against polygamy is that more often than not, it is likely to present harmful effects especially towards the women and children. Women in polygamous marriages are at higher risk of having low esteem issues, depression and constant worry compared to women in monogamous relationships. Studies have also revealed these women enjoy less marital satisfaction and more problematic mother-child relationships (Bennion, 2012). Additionally, women in polygamous marriages are prone to depression when they become pregnant since their husbands divert their sexual attention to the other wives. These women are typically subservient to their husbands who only value them for the childbearing role. Consequently, polygamous women are left devoid of any powers to exercise any control of the marriage. This buds into feelings of powerlessness and emotional turmoil (Bennion, 2012). Several studies also show that only a small fraction of women in polygamous marriages work outside the home (Ward, 2010).  Most of them lack the mandate or ability to seek employment. Research on polygamy amongst the Arabs revealed that first wives are inferior to junior and subsequent wives. They experienced more economic hardships and less satisfactory relationships with their husbands. Some scholars also noted that polygamous marriages caused harmful psychological effects on a number of first wives (Ward, 2010). This caused most of them to seek mental health treatment and psychiatric outpatient services. Several of these psychological disorders seen widely among first wives included anxiety, depression and somaticized symptoms (Ward, 2010). It has also been shown that first wives and teachers described relationships with husbands and fathers as neglectful. This showed a lack of interest and minimal interaction with them and their children. This caused them to suffer adverse effe cts from the polygamous union. On the contrary, junior wives were highly favored by their husbands. They were allowed to obtain more economic resources and support. Effects on children from polygamous familiesResearch indicates that children from polygamous families are at heightened risks of developing harmful effects. There is considerable evidence that points to these children experiencing higher incidence of marital conflicts, family violence and disruptions than do children of monogamous families (Jacobson and Burton, 2011). Moreover, children from polygamous backgrounds are more likely to develop behavioral and socializing problems. The same problems are also reflected in their performance in school. Most teachers unanimously agreed that problems faced by polygamous children are somewhat similar (Jacobson and Burton, 2011).These include disobedience, hyperactivity, repeated lying to a teacher or person in authority, sibling fights, enuresis and stuttering. Their levels of academic achievement were also below average. Polygamous children displayed inability to concentrate in class, had low attendance, incompletion of homework, maladjustment to classroom procedures, peer and teacher relational problems (Jacobson and Burton, 2011). On the other hand, situational problems are likely to arise such as higher number of siblings, higher number of parental figures, absence of the father figure, competition and jealousy of family members over resources and emotional relationships with the father (Bennion, 2012). In addition, living areas were often crowded and economic resources taxed to the limit due to the high number of dependants. These children do not grow up to experience the parental love that is overflowing in monogamous systems (Bennion, 2012). Such children will be tempted to resort to other avenues to compensate the missing love. It is then that they find themselves trapped in the world of crime, adultery and other social vices. Children from polygamous marriages are more susceptible to drug abu se (Bennion, 2012). Adolescent males in these unions were found to fair much worse than those from monogamous marriages. This was attributed to exposure to a chaotic life where the child is responsible for protecting his mother and sisters from dysfunctional stressors of living in a polygamous household (Ward, 2010). Children often become defensive of their own families and display resentment and anger towards the other sub-family. In times of discord, most of the senor wife’s children side with their mother over the biological father. The reason for this is obvious; loyalty to their mothers, half-sibling rivalry and jealousy in equal measure. However, the father and his tribe have expectations that they would side with. This has caused man of the children significant confusions with their boundaries and loyalties alike (Ward, 2010). Effects on polygamous men                     Men in polygamous marriages have been linked to several negative effects. To start with, men are more likely to suffer from alcoholism, which can arise due to psychological problems (Jencks and Milton, 2010).   Secondly, men in polygamous marriages in most times fall short in terms of education achievements compared to their monogamous counterparts. This suitcase of evidence is substantial enough to believe there is a prima facie case of polygamy being linked to adverse effects. Though this effects impact upon all members of a polygamous family, women are at higher risk (Jencks and Milton, 2010). One proposed argument defines polygamy as a structurally unequal practice. This inequality lies in the fact that polygamy as practiced today normally permits men to marry many wives while the vice versa is highly critiqued. The most convincing argument against polygamy is that men are permitted plural marriages while women are not (Jencks and Milton, 2010).   This asymmetry of power is blatantly unacceptable. Structural inequality raises concerns with other issues that affect women. The argument continues to state that asymmetry of power plays a crucial role in the theme of sexual harassment. Polygamy represents asymmetry of power between man and women, which is simultaneously linked, to male domination of women (Jencks and Milton, 2010). These reservations against polygamy are conditional upon the justification of unequal status of women. If women shared equal opportunities to marry more than one husband, then the asymmetry of power might be broken. Essentially, if there were a sex-equal polygamy that respected the consent of men and women equally, such polygamy would be justified (Beaman and Calder, 2013).While there may be structural asymmetries in the system of polygamy, the unequal status of women would be in existence together with other contributory facts. Polygamous marriages need not entail unequal status quo for women. It remains objectionable therefore for polygamy to be reserved only for men, consent notwithstanding (Beaman and Calder, 2013). In the contemporary liberal society, civil marriages that fail to assign equal importance to consent of all spouses are not tolerated. They are also rejected if they do not offer the exit option of divorce to either spouse (Beaman and Calder, 2013).Polygamy is thus un justified because spouses lack equal options to divorce. In critical view of all these parameters, polygamy is not justified regardless of whatever ground. This asymmetry of power exists whether the polygamous marriage is polygynous or polyandrous (Beaman and Calder, 2013). Polygamy also discriminates against non-heterosexuals. All forms of it presuppose that polygamous marriages are heterosexual marriages. If we were to defend polygamy, then we would have to make available opportunities that would include heterosexuals and exclude non-heterosexuals. Human beings must be able to exercise several capabilities including the capability of affiliation (Jencks and Milton, 2010). However, this capability forbids discrimination on basis of sexual orientation. Hence, polygamy violates the capability of affiliation as it discriminates based on sexual orientation in excluding non-heterosexuals. This paper has highlighted many issues about polygamy, its origin, pros, and cons. The main purpose of the essay was to examine the negative effects of polygamous marriages in society. Limited defences of polygamy have been highlighted throughout this report. Most of the defences do not hold water in the current day and age. In the first place, polygamy is a structurally inegalitarian practice in fact. This article has provided prima facie evidence those polygamous marriages subject women to a greater risk of harmful effects. Furthermore, I have argued that polygamous marriages are most often polygynous marriages. Therefore, women lack the equal opportunity of men to form polygamous marriages with multiple partners of the opposite sex in practice. The second ground is that polygamy is a structurally inegalitarian practice in theory. I have argued that polygamy not only threatens the equality of men and women in fact,  but also the equality of polygamous marriage partners as the  latter have asymmetrical opportunities to divorce. Additionally, the findings nonetheless associate polygamous family structures with somatic complaints among senior wives, family dysfunction between the sub-families and within the senior wife headed sub-family. Economic deprivation within the senior wife headed sub-family is also rife coupled with behavioral and scholastic problems among senior wives’ children. Moreover, the children’s behavioral problems are noted and correlate polygamy with behavioral problems, sibling rivalries and drug abuse. However, every right needs to be guaranteed by law. It is therefore necessary that the right to polygamy be reviewed and revised accordingly. Harsh and more stringent laws should be enforced on those found practicing polygamy since it is considered illegal in most states. Justice is only possible when people have access to the judicial system, thus it is necessary that family courts be established at the provincial and district level to address issues such as polygamy. Religious scholars and clerics, consider the huge responsibility that they have towards increasing the Islamic knowledge of public and informing them on their Islamic obligations. They should consider it their duty to explain the philosophy and rational of polygamy to the community and should prevent men from polygamy. Women are the principle victims of polygamy. They must learn more about their religious and human rights mainly when it comes to family rights and issues related to polygamy. It is only at such a time that this knowledge and awareness and practicing their rights will close the way for unjustifiable marriages of their husbands. Building the capacities and economical empowering of women is considered the main method of fighting this vice. Economical empowerment will help women to resist against the new marriages of their husbands. Thus, it is required to search areas for capacity building and economical empowerment of women through their own efforts and with the collaboration of government and other responsible organs and to implement specific programs in this regard. Children are amongst the most vulnerable in polygamous systems. The psychological effects of discrimination and injustice between children of wives cause problems in the process of their normal growth. Specific research has been done on the psychological effects of polygamy on children and illustrated the dimensions of the forthcoming effects. Awareness might be raised via the local media, religious leaders, and the formal and informal education systems. Such awareness may lead to public discussions about the benefits and the economic and psychological burdens of polygamy. Thereby, this will enhance the ability and the freedom of individuals in the community to choose their own ways of family life. Programs should be developed to assist women and children in polygamous families to cope with the difficulties in their lives. For those already in polygamous marriages, a support group for wives could be offered in the community. In such groups, women can share their feelings and find ways to overcome pain and conflicts. Children in polygamous families can be supported through the school system and via after-school programs. In addition, social practitioners and family therapists should develop methods of intervention with polygamous families, possibly adapting concepts and techniques taken from both family therapy and group work. All members in the family could learn how to negotiate for attention and resources, how to compromise, and how to build a successful small. Beyond counseling, for the well-being of the family as a whole, it is crucial that concrete assistance be provided where it is needed in the form of financial benefits, school materials for the children, food aid, and health care. Both men and women in polygamous families should be helped to acquire marketable skills and to enter the job market, which would give them both a modicum of financial independence and some sense of empowerment. Conclusion                     In conclusion, the effects of polygamy in family, society to the country have been shown to be diverse. It is clear for many particularly men that there are positive aspects of leading a polygamous life. For the remaining many, polygamy remains a stubborn lesion that results in sadness, depression, confusion, resentment, loss of identity and love. It is therefore not surprising to realize that women and children oppose this type of family life and wish to form monogamous families in the future. Moreover, members of the family do not succeed in overcoming their anger, jealousy, and antipathy. It has also been highlighted how intergenerational suffering in the form of disengagement, fighting, emotional turmoil, and interrelational conflicts are prevalent. It is important that community awareness of these potential negative effects of polygamy be elevated and addressed urgently. References Bennion, J. (2012).  Polygamy in primetime: Media, gender, and politics in Mormon fundamentalism. Waltham, Massachusetts: Brandeis University Press. Crooks, R., & Baur, K. (2014).  Favourite Wife. 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